Adaptive significance of affiliative behaviour differs between sexes in a wild reptile population

In recent years, we have begun to appreciate that social behaviours might exhibit repeatable among-individual variation. Such behavioural traits may even covary and have critical evolutionary implications. Importantly, some social behaviours such as aggressiveness have been shown to provide fitness benefits, including higher reproductive success and survival. However, fitness consequences of affiliative behaviours, especially between or among sexes, can be more challenging to establish. Using a longitudinal behavioural dataset (2014-2021) collected on eastern water dragons (Intellagama lesueurii), we investigated whether various aspects of affiliative behaviour (i) were repeatable across years, (ii) covaried with each other at the among-individual level, and (iii) influenced individuals' fitness. In particular, we considered affiliative behaviours towards opposite-sex and same-sex conspecifics separately. We found that social traits were repeatable and covaried with each other similarly for both sexes. More notably, we found that male reproductive success was positively correlated with the number of female associates and the proportion of time spent with females, while females' reproductive success was not correlated with any of the measured social behaviour metrics. Overall, these findings suggest that selection may be acting differently on social behaviour of male and female eastern water dragons.

Nutritional and Physicochemical Properties of Wild Lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.)-Effects of Geographic Origin

In recent years, much attention has been devoted to Vaccinium L. berries because of their substantial potential to be adapted for the development of innovative food and pharmaceutical applications. The accumulation of plant secondary metabolites is extremely dependent on climate and other environmental conditions. In order to increase the reliability of the findings, this study was conducted with samples collected in four regions in Northern Europe (Norway, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania) and analyzed in a single laboratory using a standardized methodology. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nutritional (biologically active compounds (phenolic (477-775 mg/100 g fw), anthocyanins (20-57 mg/100 g fw), pro-anthocyanidins (condensed tannins (141-269 mg/100 g fw)) and antioxidant activity in different systems (ABTS^•+, FRAP). Physicochemical properties (acidity, soluble solids, color) of wild Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. were also evaluated. The results may contribute to the development of functional foods and nutraceuticals with potential health benefits in the future. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive report on the evaluation of the biologically active compounds of wild lingonberries from different Northern European countries based on one laboratory's validated methods. The results indicated a geomorphological influence on the biochemical and physicochemical composition of wild Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. depending on their place of geographical origin.

The impact of SNP density on quantitative genetic analyses of body size traits in a wild population of Soay sheep

Understanding the genetic architecture underpinning quantitative traits in wild populations is pivotal to understanding the processes behind trait evolution. The 'animal model' is a popular method for estimating quantitative genetic parameters such as heritability and genetic correlation and involves fitting an estimate of relatedness between individuals in the study population. Genotypes at genome-wide markers can be used to estimate relatedness; however, relatedness estimates vary with marker density, potentially affecting results. Increasing density of markers is also expected to increase the power to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL). In order to understand how the density of genetic markers affects the results of quantitative genetic analyses, we estimated heritability and performed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on five body size traits in an unmanaged population of Soay sheep using two different SNP densities: a dataset of 37,037 genotyped SNPs and an imputed dataset of 417,373 SNPs. Heritability estimates did not differ between the two SNP densities, but the high-density imputed SNP dataset revealed four new SNP-trait associations that were not found with the lower density dataset, as well as confirming all previously-found QTL. We also demonstrated that fitting fixed and random effects in the same step as performing GWAS is a more powerful approach than pre-correcting for covariates in a separate model.

Characterization of Feeding Behavior and its Relationship With the Longevity of Wild and Peridomestic Triatoma dimidiata, Latreille 1811 (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) Under Laboratory Conditions

Triatoma dimidiata (Latreille 1811) is considered the second most important vector of the Trypanosa cruzi etiological agent of Chagas disease in Colombia. It has a life cycle that involves a domiciled, peridomiciled, and wild distribution. The study of feeding behavior and its influence on the survival of sylvatic and peridomestic populations can help identify a possible differential risk in the transmission of Chagas disease to humans, mainly in northwestern and east-central Colombia. We characterize the main parameters of feeding behavior and their influence on the longevity and survival of two rat-fed populations of T. dimidiata from Colombia, one in the north-west (from palms in a tropical dry forest area) and the other in the center-east (peridomiciliated), under controlled environmental conditions. The palm population took considerably longer than the peridomestic population to complete its life cycle under experimental laboratory conditions, being both populations univoltine since they have only one life cycle per year. Statistically significant differences were evidenced using Box-Cox model between the survival rates of T. dimidiata populations when the parameters related to blood intake and behavior were incorporated, in contrast to the survival models in which the origin only was considered as a factor. Our results could be used to generate recommendations to guide prevention strategies in communities near sylvatic and peridomiciliated populations of T. dimidiata.

Impacts of Chronic Habitat Fragmentation on Genetic Diversity of Natural Populations of Prunus persica in China

Wild peach is an important resource for improving existing peach varieties. However, the extant populations of wild peach show fragmented distribution due to human disturbance and geographic isolation. In this study, we used natural populations (or wild populations) of Prunus persica (Rosaceae) to assess the genetic effects of habitat fragmentation. A total of 368 individuals sampled from 16 natural populations were analyzed using 23 polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Prunus persica maintained low within-population genetic variation and high level of genetic differentiation. Two genetic clusters were revealed based on three different methods (UPGMA, PCoA, and STRUCTURE). All populations showed a significant heterozygosity deficiency and most extant populations experienced recent reduction in population size. A significant isolation by distance (IBD) was observed with Mantel's test. Compared to historical gene flow, contemporary gene flow was restricted among the studied populations, suggesting a decrease in gene flow due to habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation has impacted population genetic variation and genetic structure of P. persica. For breeding and conservation purpose, collecting as many individuals as possible from multiple populations to maximize genetic diversity was recommended during the process of germplasm collection. In addition, populations from central China had higher genetic diversity, suggesting these populations should be given priority for conservation and germplasm collection.

[Identification of released population of Japanese flounder based on stable isotopes analysis]

Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) is an important releasing fish in the Yellow and Bohai Seas of China. The identification of wild and releasing population is the premise to evaluate the enhancement effects. In order to study the application of stable isotope in the identification of released P. olivaceus population, captured juveniles in the offshore releasing area of Qinhuangdao were distinguished into wild and released population using previous method (combination of morphology and molecular). Then, the contents of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope in muscle and otoliths (including the whole and the core region) were measured. The cultured population was set as control. The results showed that δ¹³C values (wild population: -17.19‰±0.73‰; released population: -17.10‰±0.61‰; cultured population: -20.75‰±0.07‰) and δ¹⁵N values (wild population: 11.81‰±0.38‰; released population: 11.62‰±0.48‰; cultured population: 8.64‰±0.60‰) of muscle and δ¹³C value (wild popu-lation: -4.47‰±0.35‰; released population: -4.63‰±0.29‰; cultured population: -6.59‰±0.58‰) of the whole otolith could be used to identify the cultured population, but could not be used to distinguish the wild from the released population. The δ¹³C value (wild population: -4.66‰±0.30‰; released population: -5.41‰±0.21‰; cultured population: -5.37‰±0.19‰) of the core region of otolith could be used to identify the wild popu-lation. The δ¹⁸O values of the whole and the core region of otolith from these three groups were overlapped and could not be used to distinguish different populations. Our results indicated that the δ¹³C value of the core area of otolith could be used to identify wild and released population, with application prospect in the identification of broodstocks participating in spawning migration. This study provided basic data and technical methods for evaluating early resources replenishment and the effects of Japanese flounder enhancement.

Effects of land use change on population survival of three wild rice species in China since 2001

Land use change stemming from human activities, particularly cropland expansion, heavily threatens the survival of crop wild relatives that usually occur nearby or scatter in farming systems. Understanding the impacts of land use change on wild populations is critical in forming the conservation decision-making of wild relatives. Based on the investigations on the population survival of three wild rice species (Oryza rufipogon, O. officinalis, and O. granulata) in China over the past 40 years (1978-2019), the effect of land use change during the past 20 years (2001-2019) on the natural populations of the three species was examined using the land use type data of satellite-based Earth observations (data from GlobCover). From 1978 to 2019, the number of populations (distribution sites) of the three wild rice species had decreased by 65-87%, mainly because of the habitat destruction or disappearance caused by human-induced land use change. The three wild rice species display different habitat preferences, resulting in specific land use types surrounding their populations. In the recent 20 years, although the surrounding community composition of the wild rice population has been relatively stable, the surrounding vegetation cover area of the survived populations was significantly more extensive than that of the extinct ones (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that habitat vegetation plays a "biological barrier" role in the survival of wild populations through resisting or mitigating the disturbing impact of land use change on wild populations. This study provides not only direct guidelines for the conservation of wild rice but also new insights into the mechanisms underlying the influence of land use change on wild populations.

Fur colour in the Arctic fox: genetic architecture and consequences for fitness

Genome-wide association studies provide good opportunities for studying the genetic basis of adaptive traits in wild populations. Yet, previous studies often failed to identify major effect genes. In this study, we used high-density single nucleotide polymorphism and individual fitness data from a wild non-model species. Using a whole-genome approach, we identified the MC1R gene as the sole causal gene underlying Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus fur colour. Further, we showed the adaptive importance of fur colour genotypes through measures of fitness that link ecological and evolutionary processes. We found a tendency for blue foxes that are heterozygous at the fur colour locus to have higher fitness than homozygous white foxes. The effect of genotype on fitness was independent of winter duration but varied with prey availability, with the strongest effect in years of increasing rodent populations. MC1R is located in a genomic region with high gene density, and we discuss the potential for indirect selection through linkage and pleiotropy. Our study shows that whole-genome analyses can be successfully applied to wild species and identify major effect genes underlying adaptive traits. Furthermore, we show how this approach can be used to identify knowledge gaps in our understanding of interactions between ecology and evolution.

Selection on Sperm Count, but Not on Sperm Morphology or Velocity, in a Wild Population of Anolis Lizards

Sperm competition is a widespread phenomenon that shapes male reproductive success. Ejaculates present many potential targets for postcopulatory selection (e.g., sperm morphology, count, and velocity), which are often highly correlated and potentially subject to complex multivariate selection. Although multivariate selection on ejaculate traits has been observed in laboratory experiments, it is unclear whether selection is similarly complex in wild populations, where individuals mate frequently over longer periods of time. We measured univariate and multivariate selection on sperm morphology, sperm count, and sperm velocity in a wild population of brown anole lizards (Anolis sagrei). We conducted a mark-recapture study with genetic parentage assignment to estimate individual reproductive success. We found significant negative directional selection and negative quadratic selection on sperm count, but we did not detect directional or quadratic selection on any other sperm traits, nor did we detect correlational selection on any trait combinations. Our results may reflect pressure on males to produce many small ejaculates and mate frequently over a six-month reproductive season. This study is the first to measure multivariate selection on sperm traits in a wild population and provides an interesting contrast to experimental studies of external fertilizers, which have found complex multivariate selection on sperm phenotypes.

Reproductive females and young mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon × Ovis sp.) in poor body condition are the main spreaders of gastrointestinal parasites

Several individual, environmental and parasitic factors can influence the impacts of parasites on host's fitness and on host's ability to transmit these parasites to new hosts. Identifying these factors and the individuals who play a greater role in parasite transmission is of main concern for the development of parasite control strategies. In the present study, we aimed to describe the diversity of gastrointestinal parasites and to identify the individual factors influencing the faecal spreading of parasites in a free-ranging population of Mediterranean mouflon. From the analysis of 433 faecal samples, we found Eimeria spp. and gastrointestinal strongyles (GIS) were the most common parasites (>94%). The faecal oocyst counts of Eimeria spp. were the highest during the first years of life. It was 1.6 times higher in females than in males and 2.5 times higher in individuals in poor than in good body condition. Similarly, the faecal egg count of GIS was higher in females and decreased with age, but only in males. Finally, reproductive females had GIS faecal egg count values 2.6 times higher than non-reproductive females. Management strategies of parasites should thus primarily focus on reproductive females and young individuals in poor body condition as they represent the main contamination source of the environment.

Captivity Influences Gut Microbiota in Crocodile Lizards (Shinisaurus crocodilurus)

Captivity is an important measure for conservation of an endangered species, and it is becoming a hot topic in conservation biology, which integrates gut microbiota and endangered species management in captivity. As an ancient reptile, the crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) is facing extreme danger of extinction, resulting in great significance to species conservation in the reserve. Thus, it is critical to understand the differences in gut microbiota composition between captive and wild populations, as it could provide fundamental information for conservative management of crocodile lizards. Here, fecal samples of crocodile lizards were collected from two wild and one captive populations with different ages (i.e., juveniles and adults) and were analyzed for microbiota composition by 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene amplicon sequencing. This study showed that the lizard gut microbiota was mainly composed of Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. The gut microbiota composition of crocodile lizard did not differ between juveniles and adults, as well as between two wild populations. Interestingly, captivity increased community richness and influenced community structures of gut microbiota in crocodile lizards, compared with wild congeners. This was indicated by higher abundances of the genera Epulopiscium and Glutamicibacter. These increases might be induced by complex integration of simple food resources or human contact in captivity. The gut microbiota functions of crocodile lizards are primarily enriched in metabolism, environmental information processing, genetic information processing, and cellular processes based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. This study provides fundamental information about the gut microbiota of crocodile lizards in wild and captive populations. In the future, exploring the relationship among diet, gut microbiota, and host health is necessary for providing animal conservation strategies.

Simultaneous Determination and Analysis of Major Ginsenosides in Wild American Ginseng Grown in Tennessee

Ginsenosides are the major constituent that is responsible for the health effects of American ginseng. The ginsenoside profile of wild American ginseng is ultimately the result of germplasm, climate, geography, vegetation species, water, and soil conditions. This is the first report to address the ginsenoside profile of wild American ginseng grown in Tennessee (TN), the third leading state for production of wild American ginseng. In the present study, ten major ginsenosides in wild American ginseng roots grown in TN, including Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, and Rg3, were determined simultaneously. The chemotypic differences among TN wild ginseng, cultivated American ginseng, and Asian ginseng were assessed based on the widely used markers of ginsenoside profiling, including the top three ginsenosides, ratios of PPD/PPT, Rg1/Rb1, Rg1/Re, and Rb2/Rc. Our findings showed marked variation in ginsenoside profile for TN wild ginseng populations. Nevertheless, TN wild ginseng has significant higher ginsenoside content and more ginsenoside diversity than the cultivated ginseng. The total ginsenoside content in TN wild ginseng, as well as ginsenosides Rg1 and Re, increases with the age of the roots. Marked chemotypic differences between TN wild ginseng and cultivated American ginseng were observed based on the chemotypic markers. Surprisingly, we found that TN wild ginseng is close to Asian ginseng with regard to these characteristics in chemical composition. This study verified an accessible method to scientifically elucidate the difference in chemical constituents to distinguish wild from the cultivated American ginseng. This work is critical for the ecological and biological assessments of wild American ginseng so as to facilitate long-term sustainability of the wild population.

Moderate heritability and low evolvability of sperm morphology in a species with high risk of sperm competition, the collared flycatcher Ficedula albicollis

Spermatozoa represent the morphologically most diverse type of animal cells and show remarkable variation in size across and also within species. To understand the evolution of this diversity, it is important to reveal to what degree this variation is genetic or environmental in origin and whether this depends on species' life histories. Here we applied quantitative genetic methods to a pedigreed multigenerational data set of the collared flycatcher Ficedula albicollis, a passerine bird with high levels of extra-pair paternity, to partition genetic and environmental sources of phenotypic variation in sperm dimensions for the first time in a natural population. Narrow-sense heritability (h² ) of total sperm length amounted to 0.44 ± 0.14 SE, whereas the corresponding figure for evolvability (estimated as coefficient of additive genetic variation, CV_a ) was 0.02 ± 0.003 SE. We also found an increase in total sperm length within individual males between the arrival and nestling period. This seasonal variation may reflect constraints in the production of fully elongated spermatozoa shortly after arrival at the breeding grounds. There was no evidence of an effect of male age on sperm dimensions. In many previous studies on laboratory populations of several insect, mammal and avian species, heritabilities of sperm morphology were higher, whereas evolvabilities were similar. Explanations for the differences in heritability may include variation in the environment (laboratory vs. wild), intensity of sexual selection via sperm competition (high vs. low) and genetic architecture that involves unusual linkage disequilibrium coupled with overdominance in one of the studied species.

Genotypic and Environmental Effects on the Volatile Chemotype of Valeriana jatamansi Jones

Valeriana jatamansi Jones is an aromatic medicinal herb and important alternative to V. officinalis, which is utilized for medicinal purposes in China and India and also as spices in India. Bioactive ingredients of V. jatamansi vary in different regions. However, no information is currently available on influence of genotype and environmental factors in the volatile compounds, especially when germplasms and planting locations need to be selected. Based on the results of SNP and volatile constituents from GC-MS analysis, this study found various genotypes and chemotypes of V. jatamansi for wild plants from seven regions in China and common-garden samples; correlations between genotype and chemotype were revealed for the plants. Two distinct populations (PX, FY) were distinguishable from five others (GJ, YL, SY, DD, DY) according to their genotypes and volatile profiles, the consistency of which was observed showing that genotype could significantly influence chemotype. Wild populations and common-garden samples were also separated in their volatile profiles, demonstrating that environmental factors strongly affected their chemotypes. Compounds contributing to the discrimination were identified as discriminatory compounds. This investigation has explored and provided essential information concerning the correlation between genotype and chemotype as well as environmental factors and chemotype of V. jatamansi in some regions of China. Feasible plantation and conservation strategies of V. jatamansi could be further explored based on these results.

Field Populations of Wild Apis cerana Honey Bees Exhibit Increased Genetic Diversity Under Pesticide Stress Along an Agricultural Intensification Gradient in Eastern India

Pesticides have been reported to be one of the major drivers in the global pollinator losses. The large-scale decline in honey bees, an important pollinator group, has resulted in comprehensive studies on honey bee colonies. Lack of information on native wild pollinators has paved the way for this study, which highlights the underlying evolutionary changes occurring in the wild honey bee populations exposed to pesticides along an agricultural intensification landscape. The study reports an increased genetic diversity in native Apis cerana Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Apidae) populations continually exposed to pesticide stress. An increased heterozygosity, evidenced by a higher electrophoretic banding pattern, was observed in the pesticide-exposed populations for two isozymes involved with xenobiotic metabolism-esterase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Differential banding patterns also revealed a higher percentage of polymorphic loci, number of polymorphic bands, Nei's genetic distance, etc. observed in these populations in the Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RAPD-PCR) experiments using three random decamer primers. Higher heterozygosity, being indicative of a more resistant population, implies population survival within the threshold pesticide stress. This study reports such changes for the first time in native wild Indian honey bee populations exposed to pesticides and has far-reaching implications on the population adaptability under pesticide stress.

Association mapping reveals candidate loci for resistance and anaemic response to an emerging temperature-driven parasitic disease in a wild salmonid fish

Even though parasitic infections are often costly or deadly for the host, we know very little which genes influence parasite susceptibility and disease severity. Proliferative kidney disease is an emerging and, at elevated water temperatures, potentially deadly disease of salmonid fishes that is caused by the myxozoan parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae. By screening >7.6 K SNPs in 255 wild brown trout (Salmo trutta) and combining association mapping and Random Forest approaches, we identified several candidate genes for both the parasite resistance (inverse of relative parasite load; RPL) and the severe anaemic response to the parasite. The strongest RPL-associated SNP mapped to a noncoding region of the congeneric Atlantic salmon (S. salar) chromosome 10, whereas the second strongest RPL-associated SNP mapped to an intronic region of PRICKLE2 gene, which is a part of the planar cell polarity signalling pathway involved in kidney development. The top SNP associated with anaemia mapped to the intron of the putative PRKAG2 gene. The human ortholog of this gene has been associated with haematocrit and other blood-related traits, making it a prime candidate influencing parasite-triggered anaemia in brown trout. Our findings demonstrate the power of association mapping to pinpoint genomic regions and potential causative genes underlying climate change-driven parasitic disease resistance and severity. Furthermore, this work illustrates the first steps towards dissecting genotype-phenotype links in a wild fish population using closely related genome information.

Isotope (δ13C, δ15N, δ2H) diet-tissue discrimination in African grey parrot Psittacus erithacus: implications for forensic studies

Diet-tissue isotopic relationships established under controlled conditions are informative for determining the dietary sources and geographic provenance of organisms. We analysed δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and non-exchangeable δ²H values of captive African grey parrot Psittacus erithacus feathers grown on a fixed mixed-diet and borehole water. Diet-feather Δ¹³C and Δ¹⁵N discrimination values were +3.8 ± 0.3 ‰ and +6.3 ± 0.7 ‰ respectively; significantly greater than expected. Non-exchangeable δ²H feather values (-62.4 ± 6.4 ‰) were more negative than water (-26.1 ± 2.5 ‰) offered during feather growth. There was no positive relationship between the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of the samples along each feather with the associated samples of food offered, or the feather non-exchangeable hydrogen isotope values with δ²H values of water, emphasising the complex processes involved in carbohydrate, protein, and income water routing to feather growth. Understanding the isotopic relationship between diet and feathers may provide greater clarity in the use of stable isotopes in feathers as a tool in determining origins of captive and wild-caught African grey parrots, a species that is widespread in aviculture and faces significant threats to wild populations. We suggest that these isotopic results, determined even in controlled laboratory conditions, be used with caution.

Environment-Dependent Genotype-Phenotype Associations in Avian Breeding Time

Understanding how genes shape phenotypes is essential to assess the evolutionary potential of a trait. Identifying the genes underlying quantitative behavioral or life-history traits has, however, proven to be a major challenge. The majority of these traits are phenotypically plastic and different parts of the genome can be involved in shaping the trait under different environmental conditions. These variable genotype-phenotype associations could be one explanation for the limited success of genome-wide association studies in such traits. We here use avian seasonal timing of breeding, a trait that is highly plastic in response to spring temperature, to explore effects of such genotype-by-environment interactions in genome-wide association studies. We genotyped 2045 great tit females for 384081 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and recorded their egg-laying dates in the wild. When testing for associations between SNPs and egg-laying dates, no SNP reached genome-wide significance. We then explored whether SNP effects were modified by annual spring temperature by formally testing for an interaction between SNP effect and temperature. The models including the SNP^∗temperature interaction performed consistently better although no SNP reached genome-wide significance. Our results suggest that the effects of genes shaping seasonal timing depended on annual spring temperature. Such environment-dependent effects are expected for any phenotypically plastic trait. Taking these effects into account will thus improve the success of detecting genes involved in phenotypically plastic traits, thereby leading to a better understanding of their evolutionary potential.

Measuring the impact of the pet trade on Indonesian birds

The trade in wild animals involves one-third of the world's bird species and thousands of other vertebrate species. Although a few species are imperiled as a result of the wildlife trade, the lack of field studies makes it difficult to gauge how serious a threat it is to biodiversity. We used data on changes in bird abundances across space and time and information from trapper interviews to evaluate the effects of trapping wild birds for the pet trade in Sumatra, Indonesia. To analyze changes in bird abundance over time, we used data gathered over 14 years of repeated bird surveys in a 900-ha forest in southern Sumatra. In northern Sumatra, we surveyed birds along a gradient of trapping accessibility, from the edge of roads to 5 km into the forest interior. We interviewed 49 bird trappers in northern Sumatra to learn which species they targeted and how far they went into the forest to trap. We used prices from Sumatran bird markets as a proxy for demand and, therefore, trapping pressure. Market price was a significant predictor of species declines over time in southern Sumatra (e.g., given a market price increase of approximately $50, the log change in abundance per year decreased by 0.06 on average). This result indicates a link between the market-based pet trade and community-wide species declines. In northern Sumatra, price and change in abundance were not related to remoteness (distance from the nearest road). However, based on our field surveys, high-value species were rare or absent across this region. The median maximum distance trappers went into the forest each day was 5.0 km. This suggests that trapping has depleted bird populations across our remoteness gradient. We found that less than half of Sumatra's remaining forests are >5 km from a major road. Our results suggest that trapping for the pet trade threatens birds in Sumatra. Given the popularity of pet birds across Southeast Asia, additional studies are urgently needed to determine the extent and magnitude of the threat posed by the pet trade.

Bacterial communities associated with invasive populations of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in China

The oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) is a destructive insect pest of a wide range of fruits and vegetables. This pest is an invasive species and is currently distributed in some provinces of China. To recover the symbiotic bacteria of B. dorsalis from different invasion regions in China, we researched the bacterial diversity of this fruit fly among one laboratory colony (Guangdong, China) and 15 wild populations (14 sites in China and one site in Thailand) using DNA-based approaches. The construction of 16S rRNA gene libraries allowed the identification of 24 operational taxonomic units of associated bacteria at the 3% distance level, and these were affiliated with 3 phyla, 5 families, and 13 genera. The higher bacterial diversity was recovered in wild populations compared with the laboratory colony and in samples from early term invasion regions compared with samples from late term invasion regions. Moreover, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Providencia sp. were two of the most frequently recovered bacteria, present in flies collected from three different regions in China where B. dorsalis is invasive. This study for the first time provides a systemic investigation of the symbiotic bacteria of B. dorsalis from different invasion regions in China.

Age-related declines in immune response in a wild mammal are unrelated to immune cell telomere length

Senescence has been hypothesized to arise in part from age-related declines in immune performance, but the patterns and drivers of within-individual age-related changes in immunity remain virtually unexplored in natural populations. Here, using a long-term epidemiological study of wild European badgers (Meles meles), we (i) present evidence of a within-individual age-related decline in the response of a key immune-signalling cytokine, interferon-gamma (IFNγ), to ex vivo lymphocyte stimulation, and (ii) investigate three putative drivers of individual variation in the rate of this decline (sex, disease and immune cell telomere length; ICTL). That the within-individual rate of age-related decline markedly exceeded that at the population level suggests that individuals with weaker IFNγ responses are selectively lost from this population. IFNγ responses appeared to decrease with the progression of bovine tuberculosis infection (independent of age) and were weaker among males than females. However, neither sex nor disease influenced the rate of age-related decline in IFNγ response. Similarly, while ICTL also declines with age, variation in ICTL predicted neither among- nor within-individual variation in IFNγ response. Our findings provide evidence of within-individual age-related declines in immune performance in a wild mammal and highlight the likely complexity of the mechanisms that generate them.

Dispersal as a source of variation in age-specific reproductive strategies in a wild population of lizards

Dispersal syndromes describe the patterns of covariation of morphological, behavioural, and life-history traits associated with dispersal. Studying dispersal syndromes is critical to understanding the demographic and genetic consequences of movements. Among studies describing the association of life-history traits with dispersal, there is anecdotal evidence suggesting that dispersal syndromes can vary with age. Recent theory also suggests that dispersive and philopatric individuals might have different age-specific reproductive efforts. In a wild population of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara), we investigated whether dispersive and philopatric individuals have different age-specific reproductive effort, survival, offspring body condition, and offspring sex ratio. Consistent with theoretical predictions, we found that young dispersive females have a higher reproductive effort than young philopatric females. Our results also suggest that the early high investment in reproduction of dispersive females trades-off with an earlier onset of senescence than in philopatric females. We further found that young dispersive females produce smaller offspring in lower body condition than do young philopatric females. Overall, our results provide empirical evidence that dispersive and philopatric individuals have different age-specific life-history traits.

Predicting bird phenology from space: satellite-derived vegetation green-up signal uncovers spatial variation in phenological synchrony between birds and their environment

Population-level studies of how tit species (Parus spp.) track the changing phenology of their caterpillar food source have provided a model system allowing inference into how populations can adjust to changing climates, but are often limited because they implicitly assume all individuals experience similar environments. Ecologists are increasingly using satellite-derived data to quantify aspects of animals' environments, but so far studies examining phenology have generally done so at large spatial scales. Considering the scale at which individuals experience their environment is likely to be key if we are to understand the ecological and evolutionary processes acting on reproductive phenology within populations. Here, we use time series of satellite images, with a resolution of 240 m, to quantify spatial variation in vegetation green-up for a 385-ha mixed-deciduous woodland. Using data spanning 13 years, we demonstrate that annual population-level measures of the timing of peak abundance of winter moth larvae (Operophtera brumata) and the timing of egg laying in great tits (Parus major) and blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) is related to satellite-derived spring vegetation phenology. We go on to show that timing of local vegetation green-up significantly explained individual differences in tit reproductive phenology within the population, and that the degree of synchrony between bird and vegetation phenology showed marked spatial variation across the woodland. Areas of high oak tree (Quercus robur) and hazel (Corylus avellana) density showed the strongest match between remote-sensed vegetation phenology and reproductive phenology in both species. Marked within-population variation in the extent to which phenology of different trophic levels match suggests that more attention should be given to small-scale processes when exploring the causes and consequences of phenological matching. We discuss how use of remotely sensed data to study within-population variation could broaden the scale and scope of studies exploring phenological synchrony between organisms and their environment.

Sex differences in senescence: the role of intra-sexual competition in early adulthood

Males and females frequently differ in their rates of ageing, but the origins of these differences are poorly understood. Sex differences in senescence have been hypothesized to arise, because investment in intra-sexual reproductive competition entails costs to somatic maintenance, leaving the sex that experiences stronger reproductive competition showing higher rates of senescence. However, evidence that sex differences in senescence are attributable to downstream effects of the intensity of intra-sexual reproductive competition experienced during the lifetime remains elusive. Here, we show using a 35 year study of wild European badgers (Meles meles), that (i) males show higher body mass senescence rates than females and (ii) this sex difference is largely attributable to sex-specific downstream effects of the intensity of intra-sexual competition experienced during early adulthood. Our findings provide rare support for the view that somatic maintenance costs arising from intra-sexual competition can cause both individual variation and sex differences in senescence.

Effects of levonorgestrel-quinestrol (EP-1) treatment on Mongolian gerbil wild populations: a case study

Rodent pest population outbreaks occur frequently in grassland ecosystems in northern China. The Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) is a dominant pest rodent which is distributed across the semi-desert grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China. In 2009, we studied the contraceptive effect of levonorgestrel-quinestrol (EP-1), concentration 50 ppm, on a wild Mongolian gerbil population. The one-off contraceptive treatment was compared with a control group using a semi-monthly live trapping method in the Ordos Semi-desert Grassland Region of Inner Mongolia. The results show that juveniles were not recruited in spring in the treatment group. Ratios of juveniles in the control and treatment groups showed significant semi-monthly differences from spring to summer (one-way ANOVA, F2, 14 = 7.53, P < 0.05). Between both groups, annual fluctuations of juvenile and total population densities were significantly different respectively (F2, 14 = 4.64, P < 0.05; F2, 18 = 7.72, P < 0.05). The contraceptive EP-1 delayed the normal reproductive pattern of Mongolian gerbil populations. This suppressed birth rates of gerbil populations, reduced their densities, and changed their age structures. The period of EP-1 baiting should be extended but it could be an ideal method for controlling Mongolian gerbil populations during each breeding season.

Arboreal adaptations of body fat in wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica) and the evolution of adiposity in primates

There is a paucity of information on body composition and fat patterning in wild nonhuman primates. Dissected adipose tissue from wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica) (WTM), feeding on a natural diet, accounted for 2.1% of body weight. This was far less than fatness reported for nonhuman primates raised in captivity or for contemporary humans. In WTM, fatness increased with age and diet richness, but did not differ by sex. In WTM (none of which were obese) intra-abdominal fat filled first, and "excess" fat was stored peripherally in a ratio of about 6:1. Intermuscular fat was minimal (0.1%). The superficial paunch held <15% of subcutaneous fat weight in contrast to its much larger proportions in obese humans and captive monkeys where most added fat accumulates subcutaneously. With increasing total adiposity, accumulating fat shifted in its distribution among eight different main internal and peripheral deposit areas-consistent with maintaining body balance and a low center of gravity. The available data suggest that, in arboreal primates, adaptations for agile locomotion and terminal branch feeding set constraints on the quantity and distribution of fat. The absence of a higher percentage of body fat in females and neonates (as are typical of humans) suggests that arboreal adaptations preclude the development of fat-dependent, large-brained infants and the adipose-rich mothers needed to sustain them. The lifestyle and body composition of wild primates represent a more appropriate model for early human foragers than well-fed captive monkeys do.

Exploring the genetics of nestling personality traits in a wild passerine bird: testing the phenotypic gambit

When several personality traits covary, they form a behavioral syndrome. Understanding the evolutionary dynamics of a behavioral syndrome requires knowledge of its genetic underpinning. At present, our understanding of the genetic basis of behavioral syndromes is largely restricted to domestic and laboratory animals. Wild behavioral syndromes are mostly inferred on the basis of phenotypic correlations, and thus make the "phenotypic gambit" of assuming that these phenotypic correlations capture the underlying genetic correlations. On the basis of 3 years of reciprocal cross-fostering of 2896 nestlings of 271 families within a pedigreed population, we show that the nestling personality traits handling aggression, breathing rate, and docility are heritable (h(2) = 16-29%), and often have a pronounced "nest-of-rearing" variance component (10-15%), but a relatively small "nest-of-origin" variance component (0-7%). The three nestling personality traits form a behavioral syndrome on the phenotypic and genetic level. Overall, the phenotypic correlations provide a satisfactory description of the genetic ones, but significantly underestimate the magnitude of one of the pairwise genetic correlations, which mirrors the conclusion based on domestic and laboratory studies.

Seasonal relationship between gonadotropin, growth hormone, and estrogen receptor mRNA expression in the pituitary gland of largemouth bass

The objectives of this study were to investigate the seasonal changes in pituitary gonadotropins, growth hormone (GH), and estrogen receptor (ER) isoform mRNA in wild female and male largemouth bass (LMB) (Micropterus salmoides) from an unpolluted habitat to better understand reproductive physiology in this ecologically important species. Female pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) beta subunit and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) beta subunit mRNA showed significant seasonal variation with levels peaking from January to April and were lowest from May to August. Male LMB showed more variation in gonadotropin subunit expression from month to month. Females had approximately 2-3 times higher gonadotropin mRNA levels in the pituitary when compared to males. All three gonadotropin mRNAs in females were positively correlated to gonadosomatic index (GSI), but only LHbeta mRNA was correlated to GSI in males. Gonadotropin mRNA expression also increased with increasing oocyte and sperm maturation. Gonadotropin beta subunit mRNA expression was positively correlated to GH mRNA in both sexes. The expression of all three ER isoforms was significantly correlated to each other in both sexes. The concurrent increase in all three ER mRNA isoforms with increasing gonadotropin mRNA in females and males suggests a prominent role for E2 feedback on pituitary gonadotropin synthesis in both sexes and that each of the three ER isoforms are likely to play a role in the pituitary during teleost reproduction.

Dental senescence in a long-lived primate links infant survival to rainfall

Primates tend to be long-lived, and, except for humans, most primate females are able to reproduce into old age. Although aging in most mammals is accompanied by dental senescence due to advanced wear, primates have low-crowned teeth that wear down before old age. Because tooth wear alters crown features gradually, testing whether early dental senescence causes reproductive senescence has been difficult. To identify whether and when low-crowned teeth compromise reproductive success, we used a 20-year field study of Propithecus edwardsi, a rainforest lemur from Madagascar with a maximum lifespan of >27 years. We analyzed tooth wear in three dimensions with dental topographic analysis by using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology. We report that tooth wear exposes compensatory shearing blades that maintain dental function for 18 years. Beyond this age, female fertility remains high; however infants survive only if lactation seasons have elevated rainfall. Therefore, low-crowned teeth accommodate wear to a point, after which reproductive success closely tracks environmental fluctuations. These results suggest a tooth wear-determined, but rainfall-mediated, onset of reproductive senescence. Additionally, our study indicates that even subtle changes in climate may affect reproductive success of rainforest species.