Structural and Cognitive Mechanisms of Group Cohesion in Primates

Group-living creates stresses that, all else equal, naturally lead to group fragmentation, and hence loss of the benefits that group-living provides. How species that live in large stable groups counteract these forces is not well understood. I use comparative data on grooming networks and cognitive abilities in primates to show that living in large, stable groups has involved a series of structural solutions designed to create chains of 'friendship' (friends-of-friends effects), increased investment in bonding behaviours (made possible by dietary adjustments) to ensure that coalitions work effectively, and neuronally expensive cognitive skills of the kind known to underpin social relationships in humans. The first ensures that individuals synchronise their activity cycles; the second allows the stresses created by group-living to be defused; and the third allows a large number of weak ties to be managed. Between them, these create a form of multilevel sociality based on strong versus weak ties similar to that found in human social networks. In primates, these strategies appear successively at quite specific group sizes, suggesting that they are solutions to 'glass ceilings' that would otherwise limit the range of group sizes that animals can live in (and hence the habitats they can occupy). This sequence maps closely onto the grades now known to underpin the Social Brain Hypothesis and the fractal pattern that is known to optimise information flow round networks.

Mechanosensory and command contributions to the Drosophila grooming sequence

Flies groom in response to competing mechanosensory cues in an anterior-to-posterior order using specific legs. From behavior screens, we identified a pair of cholinergic command-like neurons, Mago-no-Te (MGT), whose optogenetic activation elicits thoracic grooming by the back legs. Thoracic grooming is typically composed of body sweeps and leg rubs in alternation, but clonal analysis coupled with amputation experiments revealed that MGT activation only commands the body sweeps: initiation of leg rubbing requires contact between the leg and thorax. With new electron microscopy (EM) connectome data for the ventral nerve cord (VNC), we uncovered a circuit-based explanation for why stimulation of posterior thoracic mechanosensory bristles initiates cleaning by the back legs. Our previous work showed that flies weigh mechanosensory inputs across the body to select which part to groom, but we did not know why the thorax was always cleaned last. Here, the connectome for the VNC enabled us to identify a pair of GABAergic inhibitory neurons, UMGT1, that receives diverse sensory inputs and synapses onto both MGT and components of its downstream circuits. Optogenetic activation of UMGT1 suppresses thoracic cleaning, representing a mechanism by which mechanosensory stimuli on other body parts could take precedence in the grooming hierarchy. We also anatomically mapped the pre-motor circuit downstream of MGT, including inhibitory feedback connections that may enable rhythmicity and coordination of limb movement during thoracic grooming. The combination of behavioral screens and connectome analysis allowed us to identify a neural circuit connecting sensory-to-motor neurons that contributes to thoracic grooming.

Somatotopic organization among parallel sensory pathways that promote a grooming sequence in Drosophila

Mechanosensory neurons located across the body surface respond to tactile stimuli and elicit diverse behavioral responses, from relatively simple stimulus location-aimed movements to complex movement sequences. How mechanosensory neurons and their postsynaptic circuits influence such diverse behaviors remains unclear. We previously discovered that Drosophila perform a body location-prioritized grooming sequence when mechanosensory neurons at different locations on the head and body are simultaneously stimulated by dust (Hampel et al., 2017; Seeds et al., 2014). Here, we identify nearly all mechanosensory neurons on the Drosophila head that individually elicit aimed grooming of specific head locations, while collectively eliciting a whole head grooming sequence. Different tracing methods were used to reconstruct the projections of these neurons from different locations on the head to their distinct arborizations in the brain. This provides the first synaptic resolution somatotopic map of a head, and defines the parallel-projecting mechanosensory pathways that elicit head grooming.

A comparison of machine learning methods for quantifying self-grooming behavior in mice

Background

As machine learning technology continues to advance and the need for standardized behavioral quantification grows, commercial and open-source automated behavioral analysis tools are gaining prominence in behavioral neuroscience. We present a comparative analysis of three behavioral analysis pipelines-DeepLabCut (DLC) and Simple Behavioral Analysis (SimBA), HomeCageScan (HCS), and manual scoring-in measuring repetitive self-grooming among mice.

Methods

Grooming behavior of mice was recorded at baseline and after water spray or restraint treatments. Videos were processed and analyzed in parallel using 3 methods (DLC/SimBA, HCS, and manual scoring), quantifying both total number of grooming bouts and total grooming duration.

Results

Both treatment conditions (water spray and restraint) resulted in significant elevation in both total grooming duration and number of grooming bouts. HCS measures of grooming duration were significantly elevated relative to those derived from manual scoring: specifically, HCS tended to overestimate duration at low levels of grooming. DLC/SimBA duration measurements were not significantly different than those derived from manual scoring. However, both SimBA and HCS measures of the number of grooming bouts were significantly different than those derived from manual scoring; the magnitude and direction of the difference depended on treatment condition.

Conclusion

DLC/SimBA provides a high-throughput pipeline for quantifying grooming duration that correlates well with manual scoring. However, grooming bout data derived from both DLC/SimBA and HCS did not reliably estimate measures obtained via manual scoring.

Investigating cycle shifts in women's clothing style and grooming

In contrast to some non-human primate species, human females do not show overt cues to fertility. Previous research argued that women still show systematic changes in their appearance across their ovulatory cycle to enhance their mating success when fertile. We report five studies investigating whether women's clothing style and grooming behaviour change across the ovulatory cycle. All studies were large (with N = 157 in Study 1, N = 109 in Study 2, N = 257 in Studies 3-5), longitudinal studies with four testing sessions per participant. They involved salivary hormone samples and luteinizing hormone tests to validate conception risk estimates. Across all studies, our results suggest no compelling evidence for cycle shifts in clothing style and grooming. Rather, two studies suggest effects in the opposite direction as hypothesized, as women wore more skin-revealing clothes when non-fertile. One study suggests small effects of wearing necklaces more and eyeglasses less often when fertile. However, these effects were not robust across all studies. Our results are in line with other recent null replications and suggest that, if existent, cues to fertility might be even more subtle than previously assumed. We discuss the need for testing competing theories that explain the evolution of concealed ovulation.

Pro-anorexia coaches prey on individuals with eating disorders

OBJECTIVE

While studies have focused on pro-ana communities and pro-anorexia websites, no research has been conducted on the presence of pro-anorexia coaches within these communities. This study aimed to gain insight into the modus operandi of pro-anorexia coaches.

METHOD

First, three fake profiles were used to attempt interaction with pro-anorexia coaches (n = 31). Second, an online questionnaire on experiences with pro-anorexia coaches was completed by 79 respondents. Third, a follow-up in-depth interview was conducted with 14 of these respondents.

RESULTS

The results show that pro-anorexia coaches' behavior fits a five-staged model which has similarities to stages of online grooming. They focus on (1) building trust and developing a dependency relationship with the aim of (2) obtaining sexually explicit materials. Subsequently, they (3) increase pressure, (4) utilize blackmail methods with acquired content, and (5) groom respondents to meet in person.

DISCUSSION

Pro-anorexia coaches deliberately abuse vulnerable young people who suffer from eating disorders to receive sexually explicit material or to meet face-to-face with a sexual intention. This study shows that the modus operandi of pro-ana coaches is similar to online grooming. Clinical professionals need to be aware of this practice to detect victims and potential victims in order to support and treat them. Prevention is invaluable to further combat pro-anorexia coaches and protect potential victims.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Individuals with an eating disorder are avid internet users. A minority frequent pro-anorexia websites and fora seeking help in losing weight. This study showed that pro-anorexia coaches prey on these individuals, often to obtain sexually explicit content. The modus operandi of pro-anorexia coaches shows similarities to online grooming. Awareness of this phenomenon and the way in which pro-anorexia coaches operate is valuable for clinicians, parents, and teachers.

Effect of behavioural sampling methods on local and global social network metrics: a case-study of three macaque species

Social network analysis (SNA) is a powerful, quantitative tool to measure animals' direct and indirect social connectedness in the context of social groups. However, the extent to which behavioural sampling methods influence SNA metrics remains unclear. To fill this gap, here we compare network indices of grooming, huddling, and aggression calculated from data collected from three macaque species through two sampling methods: focal animal sampling (FAS) and all-occurrences behaviour sampling (ABS). We found that measures of direct connectedness (degree centrality, and network density) were correlated between FAS and ABS for all social behaviours. Eigenvector and betweenness centralities were correlated for grooming and aggression networks across all species. By contrast, for huddling, we found a correlation only for betweenness centrality while eigenvector centralities were correlated only for the tolerant bonnet macaque but not so for the despotic rhesus macaque. Grooming and huddling network modularity and centralization were correlated between FAS and ABS for all but three of the eight groups. By contrast, for aggression network, we found a correlation for network centralization but not modularity between the sampling methodologies. We discuss how our findings provide researchers with new guidelines regarding choosing the appropriate sampling method to estimate social network metrics.

Emotional states following grooming in female mandrills

Grooming is a common cooperative behavior whose exact costs and benefits are still to be fully elucidated. In this study, we evaluated the emotional consequences of giving and receiving grooming in mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx), and how these may change along time after the termination of grooming. We used scratching as a behavioral indicator of anxiety-like emotions. Groomees showed increased scratching immediately after the termination of grooming, while in the subsequent minutes scratching decreased below baseline. The initial increase was larger after longer grooming events, suggesting it represented a case of postinhibitory rebound. The subsequent decline in scratching rates was larger after grooming received by a kin, suggesting interactions with kin are particularly relaxing. Scratching rates shown by groomers were unaffected by grooming interactions. These results highlight that the emotional states following grooming can have a complex time course, and may contribute to explain the inconsistencies found in the previous literature.

Environmental, sex-specific and genetic determinants of infant social behaviour in a wild primate

Affiliative social bonds are linked to fitness components in many social mammals. However, despite their importance, little is known about how the tendency to form social bonds develops in young animals, or if the timing of development is heritable and thus can evolve. Using four decades of longitudinal observational data from a wild baboon population, we assessed the environmental determinants of an important social developmental milestone in baboons-the age at which a young animal first grooms a conspecific-and we assessed how the rates at which offspring groom their mothers develops during the juvenile period. We found that grooming development differs between the sexes: female infants groom at an earlier age and reach equal rates of grooming with their mother earlier than males. We also found that age at first grooming for both sexes is weakly heritable (h2 = 0.043, 95% CI: 0.002-0.110). These results show that sex differences in grooming emerge at a young age; that strong, equitable social relationships between mothers and daughters begin very early in life; and that age at first grooming is heritable and therefore can be shaped by natural selection.

Exploring how attorneys address grooming in criminal trials of child sexual abuse

Grooming is a common tactic among perpetrators of child sexual abuse (CSA). It is important that grooming is addressed in court to explain the unintuitive ways a child may act when they have been victims of abuse. The present study draws upon 134 transcripts of CSA criminal trials to establish how attorneys talk about grooming in court. Only 1.8% of attorney's questions addressed grooming behaviors. The majority of these focusing on exposure to pornography (27%) or boundary pushing (19%). Invitations elicited the most productive reports of grooming from children. There was a statistically significant difference in the proportion with which defense and prosecuting attorney's raised grooming issues, with prosecutors raising grooming issues more often than defense attorneys. We suggest that attorneys consider devoting proportionally more time to addressing grooming in court, to help jurors demystify common myths surrounding CSA.

A novel naïve Bayes approach to identifying grooming behaviors in the force-plate actometric platform

Background

Self-grooming behavior in rodents serves as a valuable model for investigating stereotyped and perseverative responses. Most current grooming analyses primarily rely on video observation, which lacks standardization, efficiency, and quantitative information about force. To address these limitations, we developed an automated paradigm to analyze grooming using a force-plate actometer.

New Method

Grooming behavior is quantified by calculating ratios of relevant movement power spectral bands. These ratios are then input into a naïve Bayes classifier, trained with manual video observations. To validate the effectiveness of this method, we applied it to the behavioral analysis of the early-life striatal cholinergic interneuron depletion (CIN-d) mouse, a model of tic pathophysiology recently developed in our laboratory, which exhibits prolonged grooming responses to acute stressors. Behavioral monitoring was simultaneously conducted on the force-place actometer and by video recording.

Results

The naïve Bayes approach achieved 93.7% accurate classification and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.894. We confirmed that male CIN-d mice displayed significantly longer grooming durations compared to controls. However, this elevation was not correlated with increases in grooming force. Notably, haloperidol, a benchmark therapy for tic disorders, reduced both grooming force and duration.

Comparison with Existing Methods

In contrast to observation-based approaches, our method affords rapid, unbiased, and automated assessment of grooming duration, frequency, and force.

Conclusions

Our novel approach enables fast and accurate automated detection of grooming behaviors. This method holds promise for high-throughput assessments of grooming stereotypies in animal models of tic disorders and other psychiatric conditions.

Genetic variance and indirect genetic effects for affiliative social behavior in a wild primate

Affiliative social behaviors are linked to fitness components in multiple species. However, the role of genetic variance in shaping such behaviors remains largely unknown, limiting our understanding of how affiliative behaviors can respond to natural selection. Here, we employed the "animal model" to estimate environmental and genetic sources of variance and covariance in grooming behavior in the well-studied Amboseli wild baboon population. We found that the tendency for a female baboon to groom others ("grooming given") is heritable (h2 = 0.22 ± 0.048), and that several environmental variables-including dominance rank and the availability of kin as grooming partners-contribute to variance in this grooming behavior. We also detected small but measurable variance due to the indirect genetic effect of partner identity on the amount of grooming given within dyadic grooming partnerships. The indirect and direct genetic effects for grooming given were positively correlated (r = 0.74 ± 0.09). Our results provide insight into the evolvability of affiliative behavior in wild animals, including the possibility for correlations between direct and indirect genetic effects to accelerate the response to selection. As such they provide novel information about the genetic architecture of social behavior in nature, with important implications for the evolution of cooperation and reciprocity.

How to be a good partner and father? The role of adult males in pair bond maintenance and parental care in Javan gibbons

In pair-living species, female and male pairs may maintain stable social bonds by adjusting spatial and social associations. Nevertheless, each sex invests differently to maintain the pair bond, and the investment can depend on the presence of paternal care or 'male services.' While most species live in pairs, the sex responsible for pair bond maintenance in gibbons is still controversial. We investigated pair bond maintenance and parental care in three pairs of wild Javan gibbons in Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park, Indonesia, for over 21 months. We found that Javan gibbon fathers groomed their offspring more than adult females, especially as offspring got older. While both parents increased playing time with offspring when offspring became older and more independent, fathers played with offspring 20 times more than mothers on average. Grooming within Javan gibbon pairs was male-biased, suggesting that pair bond maintenance was heavily the job of males. However, offspring age as a proxy for paternal care did not affect the pair bond maintenance. Our study highlights that adult male Javan gibbons may have an important role in pair bond maintenance and the care of juveniles.

Alternative splicing and heparan sulfation converge on neurexin-1 to control glutamatergic transmission and autism-related behaviors

Neurexin synaptic organizing proteins are central to a genetic risk pathway in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurexins also exemplify molecular diversity in the brain, with over a thousand alternatively spliced forms and further structural heterogeneity contributed by heparan sulfate glycan modification. Yet, interactions between these modes of post-transcriptional and post-translational modification have not been studied. We reveal that these regulatory modes converge on neurexin-1 splice site 5 (S5): the S5 insert increases the number of heparan sulfate chains. This is associated with reduced neurexin-1 protein level and reduced glutamatergic neurotransmitter release. Exclusion of neurexin-1 S5 in mice boosts neurotransmission without altering the AMPA/NMDA ratio and shifts communication and repetitive behavior away from phenotypes associated with autism spectrum disorders. Thus, neurexin-1 S5 acts as a synaptic rheostat to impact behavior through the intersection of RNA processing and glycobiology. These findings position NRXN1 S5 as a potential therapeutic target to restore function in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Behavioral responses of solicitors after failure to receive grooming in Macaca fuscata

Grooming is one of the most common cooperative behaviors among several animal species. However, the tactics used to cope with uncooperative partners in grooming interactions remain unclear. Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) solicit grooming from partners through postural behaviors, but may not necessarily receive grooming. This study investigated the behavior of female Japanese macaques after they solicited but did not receive grooming. We predicted that unsuccessful solicitors would engage in grooming interactions with uncooperative partners if they were affiliated. If they were not affiliated, the solicitors would not do so and may seek grooming interactions with other grooming partners. We used a focal-animal sampling method, targeting 17 females at Katsuyama, Okayama Prefecture, Japan. We recognized affiliative relationships by measuring close spatial association. After unsuccessful solicitation, females tended to scratch themselves, suggesting that solicitors may experience anxiety or distress when they do not receive grooming. They also tended to be proximate with affiliated partners after solicitation, regardless of whether the solicitors received grooming from their partners. In contrast, when solicitors failed to receive grooming from unaffiliated partners, their subsequent proximity was lower than when they were groomed. Moreover, unsuccessful solicitors were likely to engage in grooming interactions with affiliated partners who were uncooperative (receivers of unsuccessful solicitations). However, they were less likely to engage in grooming interactions with unaffiliated partners and instead engaged in grooming interactions with other nearby partners. These findings indicate that female Japanese macaques decide whether to engage in grooming interactions with uncooperative partners who have not groomed solicitors based on affiliative relationships and the availability of other grooming partners. It is probable that, when the cost of searching for a grooming partner is low, female Japanese macaques are likely to switch partners, potentially leading to an increase in the benefits obtained from grooming interactions.

Breeding honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) for low and high Varroa destructor population growth: Gene expression of bees performing grooming behavior

Introduction

Social organisms, including honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), have defense mechanisms to control the multiplication and transmission of parasites and pathogens within their colonies. Self-grooming, a mechanism of behavioral immunity, seems to contribute to restrain the population growth of the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor in honey bee colonies. Because V. destructor is the most damaging parasite of honey bees, breeding them for resistance against the mite is a high priority of the beekeeping industry.

Methods

A bidirectional breeding program to select honey bee colonies with low and high V. destructor population growth (LVG and HVG, respectively) was conducted. Having high and low lines of bees allowed the study of genetic mechanisms underlying self-grooming behavior between the extreme genotypes. Worker bees were classified into two categories: 'light groomers' and 'intense groomers'. The brains of bees from the different categories (LVG-intense, LVG-light, HVG-intense, and HVG-light) were used for gene expression and viral quantification analyses. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with the LVG and HVG lines were identified.

Results

Four odorant-binding proteins and a gustatory receptor were identified as differentially expressed genes. A functional enrichment analysis showed 19 enriched pathways from a list of 219 down-regulated DEGs in HVG bees, including the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) term of oxidative phosphorylation. Additionally, bees from the LVG line showed lower levels of Apis rhabdovirus 1 and 2, Varroa destructor virus -1 (VDV-1/DWV-B), and Deformed wing virus-A (DWV-A) compared to bees of the HVG line. The difference in expression of odorant-binding protein genes and a gustatory receptor between bee lines suggests a possible link between them and the perception of irritants to trigger rapid self-grooming instances that require the activation of energy metabolic pathways.

Discussion

These results provide new insights on the molecular mechanisms involved in honey bee grooming behavior. Differences in viral levels in the brains of LVG and HVG bees showed the importance of investigating the pathogenicity and potential impacts of neurotropic viruses on behavioral immunity. The results of this study advance the understanding of a trait used for selective breeding, self-grooming, and the potential of using genomic assisted selection to improve breeding programs.

Sensing of a spore surface protein by a Drosophila chemosensory protein induces behavioral defense against fungal parasitic infections

In addition to innate immunity in a physiological context, insects have evolved behavioral defenses against parasite attacks. Here, we report that Drosophila can sense the CFEM (common in fungal extracellular membrane) protein Mcdc9, which acts as a negative virulence factor of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii. The individual deletions of 18 CFEM genes in Metarhizium followed by fly infection identified three null mutants that could kill the flies more quickly than the wild-type strain, among which Mcdc9 can coat fungal spores and interact with the fly chemosensory protein CheA75a. The deletion of Mcdc9 in the fungus or the knockdown of CheA75a in flies had a similar effect, in which a greater number of fungal spores were left on flies than on the respective controls after topical infection. Thus, similar to the accelerated death of the wild-type flies treated with ΔMcdc9, the CheA75a^RNAi flies succumbed more quickly than the control insects topically challenged with the wild-type strain. The CheA75a gene is highly transcribed in fly legs and wings, and positive electrophysiological responses were evidenced in tarsal sensilla after stimulation with the Mcdc9 protein. The results imply that this CFEM protein could be sensed as a contact elicitor inducing the hygienic behavior of flies against fungal parasitic infection, which reveals a previously unsuspected mechanism of fungus-insect interactions.

Body care of older people in different institutionalized settings: A systematic mapping review of international nursing research from a Scandinavian perspective

Body care is considered a key aspect of nursing and imperative for the health, wellbeing, and dignity of older people. In Scandinavian countries, body care as a professional practice has undergone considerable changes, bringing new understandings, values, and dilemmas into nursing. A systematic mapping review was conducted with the aims of identifying and mapping international nursing research on body care of older people in different institutionalized settings in the healthcare system and to critically discuss the dominant assumptions within the research by adapting a problematization approach. Most identified papers reported on empirical research with a biomedical approach focusing on outcome and effectiveness. Conceptual papers, papers with a focus on the perspectives of the older people, or contextual and material aspects were lacking. The research field is dominated by four dominant assumptions: Body care as an evidence-based practice, body care as a relational ethical practice, the body as a body-object and a body-subject, the objects in the body care practices as nonrelational materialities. Given the complexities of professional body care practices, there is a need for other research designs and theoretical perspectives within nursing that expand our understanding of body care taking into consideration the multiple social and material realities.

Enhanced Aggression, Reduced Self-Grooming Behavior and Altered 5-HT Regulation in the Frontal Cortex in Mice Lacking Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1)

The Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) is one of the six functional receptors belonging to the family of monoamine-related G protein-coupled receptors (TAAR1-TAAR9) found in humans. However, the exact biological mechanisms of TAAR1 central and peripheral action remain to be fully understood. TAAR1 is widely expressed in the prefrontal cortex and several limbic regions, interplaying with the dopamine system to modulate the reward circuitry. Recent clinical trials suggest the efficacy of TAAR1 agonists as potential novel antipsychotic agents. Here, we characterize behavioral and neurochemical phenotypes of TAAR1 knockout mice, focusing on aggression and self-grooming behavior that both strongly depend on the monoaminergic signaling and cortico-striatal and cortico-limbic circuits. Overall, we report increased aggression in these knockout mice in the resident-intruder test, accompanied by reduced self-grooming behavior in the novelty-induced grooming test, and by higher cortical serotonin (5-HT) tissue levels. Further studies are necessary to explore whether TAAR1-based therapies can become potential novel treatments for a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders associated with aggression.

Sociability in a non-captive macaque population is associated with beneficial gut bacteria

The relationship between social behaviour and the microbiome is known to be reciprocal. Research in wild animal populations, particularly in primate social groups, has revealed the role that social interactions play in microbial transmission, whilst studies in laboratory animals have demonstrated that the gut microbiome can affect multiple aspects of behaviour, including social behaviour. Here we explore behavioural variation in a non-captive animal population with respect to the abundance of specific bacterial genera. Social behaviour based on grooming interactions is assessed in a population of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), and combined with gut microbiome data. We focus our analyses on microbiome genera previously linked to sociability and autistic behaviours in rodents and humans. We show in this macaque population that some of these genera are also related to an individual's propensity to engage in social interactions. Interestingly, we find that several of the genera positively related to sociability, such as Faecalibacterium, are well known for their beneficial effects on health and their anti-inflammatory properties. In contrast, the genus Streptococcus, which includes pathogenic species, is more abundant in less sociable macaques. Our results indicate that microorganisms whose abundance varies with individual social behaviour also have functional links to host immune status. Overall, these findings highlight the connections between social behaviour, microbiome composition, and health in an animal population.

Barriers to and facilitators of pet grooming among clients served by a subsidized grooming service program

Grooming is an important aspect of basic hygiene care for most companion animals. The consequences of not receiving routine grooming care can pose significant risks to animals' health and wellbeing. The current study examined barriers and facilitators of maintaining pets' grooming needs among clients of a subsidized grooming service program in New York City (N = 167), as well as the impact of a tailored nail-trimming demonstration on clients' confidence trimming pets' nails. Ninety-two percent of the sample reported experiencing at least one barrier to maintaining their pet's grooming (e.g., income, transportation) and nearly half (46%) experienced three or more barriers to providing grooming. Ninety-one percent endorsed that at least one supply/support (e.g., brush/comb, behavioral support) would be beneficial in maintaining their pet's grooming needs at home and more than half reported that three or more supplies/services would be beneficial. Differences in the prevalence of specific barriers to grooming were found across income groups, service locations, and service settings. Clients who received nail-trimming demonstrations, on average, reported statistically significant increases in confidence trimming nails following their appointment. We discuss the implications of these findings for improving animal welfare and veterinary professionals' capacity for preventing grooming-related omissions of care and increasing communities' capacity to support pet owners' access to essential pet care supplies and supports. Future research is needed to determine (a) how and for whom grooming demonstrations and subsidized services are most effective, (b) whether an increase in pet owner confidence following nail trimming demonstrations is associated with maintaining nail trimming at home over time, and (c) whether providing clients with supplies and supports is an effective way of preventing and/or ameliorating future grooming-related omissions of care and hygiene-related health concerns observed by veterinarians, animal control professionals, shelter staff, and law enforcement.

Eyeblink rate as an indicator of concentration on grooming in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

In primates, social relationships with a high frequency of social grooming are referred to as "affiliate relationships," "friendship," "bonding," and are described as involving positive emotion. However, the psychological state during social grooming has not been fully understood. In this study, I focused on blinking as a behavior that reflects psychological state during grooming in Macaca fuscata, a nonhuman wild primate, and examined for the first time whether the blink rate reflects concentration on social grooming. To test this hypothesis, I focused on ectoparasite removals during social grooming with the following three predictions: (1) blinks are synchronized with breakpoints (when monkeys can release visual attention) of mouthing ectoparasites during grooming, (2) the blink rate is lower during grooming (when requiring visual concentration) than during resting (when no visual concentration is required), and (3) the lower the blink rate during grooming (supposedly in high concentration), the higher the frequency of ectoparasites removals (outputs of the task). I recorded the faces of 10 wild female Japanese macaques on Kinkazan Island, Miyagi Prefecture, with video, while they were resting and grooming, and recorded the timing and frequency of eyeblink and ectoparasite removals. All three predictions were supported, suggesting that the blink rate during grooming can be an indicator of concentration on grooming in nonhuman primates. Whether grooming concentration is associated with an affiliative relationship with the grooming partner is an issue that should be carefully examined in future studies, but eyeblink studies may provide new perspectives for understanding the psychological state of individuals during grooming in a noninvasive manner.

Grooming of fouling-release coatings to control marine fouling and determining how grooming affects the surface

Grooming may be an effective technique to control marine biofouling without damaging the coating or discharging active ingredients into the environment. This study assessed the grooming performance of three experimental biocide-free siloxane polyurethane (SiPU) fouling-release coatings. Coatings were statically immersed in Port Canaveral, Florida, and groomed every two weeks for five months using three different brush types. The ungroomed panels became heavily fouled with biofilm, tubeworms, barnacles, and bryozoans. Two of the brushes were able to control the fouling with a coverage of <5%. The commercial silicone elastomer coating was damaged from grooming procedures, while the SiPU coatings were not. Laboratory biological assays were carried out and mirrored the grooming results. Through surface characterization techniques, it was concluded that the coatings were unaffected by the grooming procedures. This study shows that marine fouling on durable SiPU fouling-release coatings can be controlled via grooming without damage or changing the surface properties.

Evading Detection: What Do We Know about Men Charged with Extrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse following Delayed Detection?

Most child sexual abuse (CSA) remains unreported and undetected. Despite this, much of what we know about perpetrators of CSA is derived from samples of convicted CSA offenders. Significant knowledge gaps remain about those who have evaded detection. This study addresses this gap with an in-depth content analysis of the case files of ten convicted child sexual offenders (CSOs) with the longest detection lag, selected from a broader group (n = 349) of men incarcerated at the Massachusetts Treatment Center (MTC). Participants were examined on a range of offender characteristics including Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), cognitive distortions, antisocial traits, indicators of pedophilia and Machiavellian or narcissistic traits, offense facilitating factors, and grooming behavior. A tentative profile emerged with the following characteristics: direct experience of childhood abuse, various cognitive distortions, specialized rather than versatile criminal history, pedophilic traits, Machiavellian traits, and engaging in a range of offense-facilitating behaviors including grooming. We provide insight into offenders who evade detection for CSA and set the foundation for further research to inform prevention strategies for law enforcement agencies and child-serving organizations.

Unspoken: Child-Perpetrator Dynamic in the Context of Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse

The literature on child sexual abuse (CSA) has contributed greatly to the understanding of child-perpetrator dynamic while mainly addressing the concepts of grooming and manipulation. Considerably less attention has been dedicated, however, to child-perpetrator dynamic in intrafamilial child sexual abuse (IFCSA). The current study examined how children perceive and experience the dynamic with their perpetrator parents in the context of IFCSA, as conveyed by victims. Analysis of 29 forensic interviews with children aged 8 to 14 years suggested above all, across all identified themes, the unspoken nature of IFCSA. Specifically, the children shared their surprise at the abusive incidents despite having described a long and unspoken grooming process. The children shared their understanding of the secretive nature of IFCSA although that too was unspoken, while illustrating the fear and terror in the family dynamic. Finally, the children discussed the elusiveness of the dynamic in terms of the natural and unnatural aspects of the relationship. The discussion addresses the unique nature of IFCSA and the family dynamic. The main implication for practice is the urgent need to modify existing instruction and training programs for practitioners to better adjust them to IFCSA survivors. More specifically, the elusive nature of IFCSA must be conveyed to both clinical and forensic practitioners who need to evaluate and intervene in with child survivors of IFCSA. In addition, the fear and terror that characterize the family dynamic and the unspoken, unbridled rule of the perpetrator fathers are of central importance in adapting interventions to children and their families in the context of IFCSA.

Lateral hypothalamic neuronal ensembles regulate pre-sleep nest-building behavior

The transition from wakefulness to sleep requires striking alterations in brain activity, physiology, and behavior, yet the precise neuronal circuit elements facilitating this transition remain unclear. Prior to sleep onset, many animal species display characteristic behaviors, including finding a safe location, performing hygiene-related behaviors, and preparing a space for sleep. It has been proposed that the pre-sleep period is a transitional phase in which engaging in a specific behavioral repertoire de-arouses the brain and facilitates the wake-to-sleep transition, yet both causal evidence for this premise and an understanding of the neuronal circuit elements involved are lacking. Here, we combine detailed behavioral observations, EEG-EMG recordings, selective targeting, and activity modulation of pre-sleep-active neurons to reveal the behaviors preceding sleep initiation and their underlying neurobiological mechanisms. We show that mice engage in temporally structured behaviors with stereotypic EEG signatures prior to sleep and that nest-building and grooming become significantly more prevalent with sleep proximity. We next demonstrate that the ability to build a nest promotes the initiation and consolidation of sleep and that the lack of nesting material chronically fragments sleep. Lastly, we identify broadly projecting and predominantly glutamatergic neuronal ensembles in the lateral hypothalamus that regulate the motivation to engage in pre-sleep nest-building behavior and gate sleep initiation and intensity. Our study provides causal evidence for the facilitatory role of pre-sleep behaviors in sleep initiation and consolidation and a functional characterization of the neuronal underpinnings regulating a sleep-related and goal-directed complex behavior.

Male chimpanzee sexual coercion and mating success at Ngogo

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have a complex mating system in which both sexes use multiple tactics. Most copulations occur in group contexts, and high-ranking males can gain high mating and reproductive success, but females typically mate with multiple males and the potential for sperm competition is high. Also, male-female dyads sometimes form temporary exclusive mating associations (consortships). Male aggression to receptive females is common. Several studies have supported the hypothesis that this is sexual coercion, but debate exists regarding the importance of coercion relative to that of female choice. The number of adult males in a community can influence the balance between these processes. In the large Ngogo community, male dominance ranks and rates of aggression to fully-swollen females were positively related to mating success as estimated by copulation rates and by proportions of copulations achieved. Aggression rates were higher than at other sites, overall and per male, especially during periovulatory periods, and increased with the number of males associating with a female. Aggression impaired female foraging efficiency. Males initiated most copulations and females rarely refused mating attempts. Male-to-female grooming was positively associated with male mating success and with the proportion of copulations that females initiated, but the amount of grooming was typically small and whether grooming-for-mating trading occurs is uncertain. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that sexual coercion is an important component of male chimpanzee mating strategies in many sociodemographic circumstances, but also show that male tactics vary both in response to and independently of those circumstances.

Odors associated with neonatal experiences with the dam have enhanced anxiolytic effects in rat

Odor stimuli are widely reported to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety in humans and rodents. However, it remains unclear if this anxiolytic efficacy can be further enhanced by association with positive experiences. Therefore, we compared the effects of a novel odor to a familiar odor previously paired with a positive experience on anxiety-like behaviors in rats. One group of Wistar-Imamichi female and male pups was exposed to an odor stimulus with their dams during postnatal days (PNDs) 8-12, whereas another control group was exposed to perfused air during the same period. Starting on PND 42, all animals were examined in the open field test (OFT) and elevated plus maze (EPM) test during exposure to scent-free air (vehicle), a novel odor, or the positive-familiar odor from postnatal exposure. In the EPM, female rats entered open arms with all 4 paws (complete entry) more frequently and spent more time on open arms during exposure to the positive-familiar odor than during exposure to air or a novel odor, whereas partial open arm entries with forepaws only were increased during exposure to both novel and positive-familiar odors compared to air. In contrast, male rats demonstrated no significant increase in open arm activity during positive-familiar odor exposure, but did show equally reduced grooming frequency during novel and familiar-positive odor exposure in the OFT. Exposure to positive-familiar odors may be an effective and safe method for anxiety reduction, especially in females.

Descending neuron population dynamics during odor-evoked and spontaneous limb-dependent behaviors

Deciphering how the brain regulates motor circuits to control complex behaviors is an important, long-standing challenge in neuroscience. In the fly, Drosophila melanogaster, this is coordinated by a population of ~ 1100 descending neurons (DNs). Activating only a few DNs is known to be sufficient to drive complex behaviors like walking and grooming. However, what additional role the larger population of DNs plays during natural behaviors remains largely unknown. For example, they may modulate core behavioral commands or comprise parallel pathways that are engaged depending on sensory context. We evaluated these possibilities by recording populations of nearly 100 DNs in individual tethered flies while they generated limb-dependent behaviors, including walking and grooming. We found that the largest fraction of recorded DNs encode walking while fewer are active during head grooming and resting. A large fraction of walk-encoding DNs encode turning and far fewer weakly encode speed. Although odor context does not determine which behavior-encoding DNs are recruited, a few DNs encode odors rather than behaviors. Lastly, we illustrate how one can identify individual neurons from DN population recordings by using their spatial, functional, and morphological properties. These results set the stage for a comprehensive, population-level understanding of how the brain’s descending signals regulate complex motor actions.

Behavioral evidence for nested central pattern generator control of Drosophila grooming

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are neurons or neural circuits that produce periodic output without requiring patterned input. More complex behaviors can be assembled from simpler subroutines, and nested CPGs have been proposed to coordinate their repetitive elements, organizing control over different time scales. Here, we use behavioral experiments to establish that Drosophila grooming may be controlled by nested CPGs. On a short time scale (5-7 Hz, ~ 200 ms/movement), flies clean with periodic leg sweeps and rubs. More surprisingly, transitions between bouts of head sweeping and leg rubbing are also periodic on a longer time scale (0.3-0.6 Hz, ~2 s/bout). We examine grooming at a range of temperatures to show that the frequencies of both oscillations increase-a hallmark of CPG control-and also that rhythms at the two time scales increase at the same rate, indicating that the nested CPGs may be linked. This relationship holds when sensory drive is held constant using optogenetic activation, but oscillations can decouple in spontaneously grooming flies, showing that alternative control modes are possible. Loss of sensory feedback does not disrupt periodicity but slow down the longer time scale alternation. Nested CPGs simplify the generation of complex but repetitive behaviors, and identifying them in Drosophila grooming presents an opportunity to map the neural circuits that constitute them.

The dynamics of social cohesion in response to simulated intergroup conflict in banded mongooses

Intergroup conflict is widespread in nature and is proposed to have strong impacts on the evolution of social behavior. The conflict-cohesion hypothesis predicts that exposure to intergroup conflict should lead to increased social cohesion to improve group success or resilience in future conflicts. There is evidence to support this prediction from studies of affiliative responses to outgroup threats in some animal societies. However, most of these studies have focused on behavioral changes over short time periods (minutes and hours after exposure to an outgroup), and hence very little is known about the dynamics and durability of responses to intergroup conflict over the longer term. We investigated this question by simulating intergroup encounters in wild banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) and measuring social behavior before, during, and after these encounters over a 5-day period. We also ran control trials with non-threatening stimuli. Banded mongooses reacted immediately to intrusion stimuli by vocalizing, grouping together, and advancing on the stimulus. In the first 5 min after simulated intrusions, we saw an elevation in grooming levels, but in the hour after exposure grooming rates declined sharply, contrary to our expectation. In the two subsequent days, grooming rates remained at this depressed rate. In control trials, the initial increase in grooming was not seen, but grooming declined compared to the longer-term time periods. Grooming changed across time, but not in the same pattern as during intrusions, suggesting that intrusions had an impact above and beyond that of the experimental setup. The dynamics of grooming responses were short lived and more complex than we initially expected. We suggest this unexpected result may be linked to the frequency of aggressive intergroup encounters in this system. As control and experimental trials were run at different times of year, future work would be needed to confirm that these relative patterns are replicable. Our results indicate short-lived impacts of outgroup threat on measures of social cohesion in this species, but cannot confirm longer-term changes.

Do Hydrothermal Shrimp Smell Vents?

Deep-sea species endemic to hydrothermal vents face the critical challenge of detecting active sites in a vast environment devoid of sunlight. This certainly requires specific sensory abilities, among which olfaction could be a relevant sensory modality, since chemical compounds in hydrothermal fluids or food odors could potentially serve as orientation cues. The temperature of the vent fluid might also be used for locating vent sites. The objective of this study is to observe the following key behaviors of olfaction in hydrothermal shrimp, which could provide an insight into their olfactory capacities: (1) grooming behavior; (2) attraction to environmental cues (food odors and fluid markers). We designed experiments at both deep-sea and atmospheric pressure to assess the behavior of the vent shrimp Rimicaris exoculata and Mirocaris fortunata, as well as of the coastal species Palaemon elegans and Palaemon serratus for comparison. Here, we show that hydrothermal shrimp groom their sensory appendages similarly to other crustaceans, but this does not clean the dense bacterial biofilm that covers the olfactory structures. These shrimp have previously been shown to possess functional sensory structures, and to detect the environmental olfactory signals tested, but we do not observe significant attraction behavior here. Only temperature, as a signature of vent fluids, clearly attracts vent shrimp and thus is confirmed to be a relevant signal for orientation in their environment.

The Impact of Socialisation on Children's Prosocial Behaviour. A Study on Primary School Students

Background: Studying prosociality in children is a complex but relevant issue related to the qualitative development of human interactions. The main objective of the present study is to identify the psychosocial factors that most promote or inhibit the adoption of prosocial behaviours among children. Method: In Spring 2021, a survey was conducted amongst primary school children through a structured paper questionnaire. The data analysis has been carried out through bivariate and multivariate statistical techniques. Path analysis has been used. Results: The results highlight the role played by the parental education level, the perception of positive and negative emotions, the adherence to gender roles and the involvement in cyberbullying actions in predicting prosocial tendencies among children. On the other hand, adopting prosocial behaviours affects the screen-time as well as the devices’ interference in face-to-face interactions and the attitude towards school. Conclusions: The results are relevant and useful for the study of trends in prosocial behaviours among children. Family education level, individual status, peer interactions and social conditionings are variables that highly influence this multidimensional phenomenon. Further research is needed, including the definition of new measures and indicators concerning the context where children live and interact with others, with the aim of designing interventions aimed at facilitating relational well-being of children.

Determinants of Harem Size in a Polygynous Primate: Reproductive Success and Social Benefits

We used long-term data on the variation in harem size in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys to research the effects of harem size on reproductive success and the ratio of grooming received to given (RGRG). The results suggest that harem holders derive reproductive benefits commensurate with harem size, whereas the females' reproductive success is unaffected by harem size. Males of larger harems groomed less and had higher RGRG than males of smaller harems. In the case of females, grooming given increased, and RGRG decreased with an increase in harem size. The males' reproductive success seems to be a driver of harem size maximization. From the females' perspective, dwindling social benefits appear to set the upper limit for harem enlargement. We also showed that males of monogamous units ('single-female harems') invested more into grooming their female, presumably to prevent unit disintegration and loss of mating privileges.

Genetic ancestry predicts male-female affiliation in a natural baboon hybrid zone

Opposite-sex social relationships are important predictors of fitness in many animals, including several group-living mammals. Consequently, understanding sources of variance in the tendency to form opposite-sex relationships is important for understanding social evolution. Genetic contributions are of particular interest due to their importance in long-term evolutionary change, but little is known about genetic effects on male-female relationships in social mammals, especially outside of the mating context. Here, we investigate the effects of genetic ancestry on male-female affiliative behaviour in a hybrid zone between the yellow baboon, Papio cynocephalus, and the anubis baboon, Papio anubis, in a population in which male-female social bonds are known predictors of life span. We place our analysis within the context of other social and demographic predictors of affiliative behaviour in baboons. Genetic ancestry was the most consistent predictor of opposite-sex affiliative behaviour we observed, with the exception of strong effects of dominance rank. Our results show that increased anubis genetic ancestry is associated with a subtle, but significantly higher, probability of opposite-sex affiliative behaviour, in both males and females. Additionally, pairs of anubis-like males and anubis-like females were the most likely to socially affiliate, resulting in moderate assortativity in grooming and proximity behaviour as a function of genetic ancestry. Our findings indicate that opposite-sex affiliative behaviour partially diverged during baboon evolution to differentiate yellow and anubis baboons, despite overall similarities in their social structures and mating systems. Furthermore, they suggest that affiliative behaviour may simultaneously promote and constrain baboon admixture, through additive and assortative effects of ancestry, respectively.

Lessons Learned: Creation and Testing of a New Instrument (Sex Offenders Grooming Assessment) for Measuring Sex Offenders' Perceptions of Their Grooming Behaviors

Grooming is a process whereby an individual who plans to commit a sexual crime uses deception with the victim as well as the people in the environment (such as the victim's family members, the offender's family, etc.) so that the crime goes undetected. Despite the overwhelming presence of grooming in sexual crimes, there is a dearth of research on sex offenders' perceptions of their own grooming behaviors. This paper describes the psychometrics and lessons learned in the pilot study of testing and revising a new instrument for measuring sex offenders' perceptions of their grooming behaviors (Sex Offenders Grooming Assessment; SOGA), with a sample (n = 50) of convicted male sex offenders in community based specialized therapy. Analyses suggest that using behaviorally-specific questions yielded more reliable results than general categorical grooming questions. Understanding how sex offenders perceive and report their grooming behavior provides valuable insight critical to treatment and assessment.

Skin problems of Korean military personnel changes in the use of cosmetics and differences in preference according to different characteristics: Focused on comparison pre- and post-enlistment

BACKGROUND

Recently, men's interest and participation in cosmetology have increased, and the number of "grooming" men who are exorbitantly investing in fashion and looks has increased, further increasing the growth potential of men's cosmetics.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to analyze the skin diseases of men in their 20s and 30s in Korea, focusing on the comparison before and after enlistment, and to study the changes in cosmetic use and the difference in cosmetic preference according to the military service problem of Korean men.

METHODS

We enrolled 450 people, after excluding 50 dishonest respondents. Statistical data processing collected with the data analysis method were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) WIN25.0 statistical package program through data coding and cleaning.

RESULTS

A total of 217 (48.2%) people preferred the cosmetic type of skin/lotion preferred by the private sector, and the cosmetic type required by the military was a complex skin lotion (48.2%) with 216 people (48.2%). All-in-one products were the most common products. The P-value was P < .001 or more.

CONCLUSION

The results of this comprehensive study indicated skin problems of Korean military personnel changes in the use of cosmetics and differences in preference according to different characteristics focused on comparison pre- and post-enlistment was assessed.

Maternal care, infant fear memory retention, and the moderating role of variations in separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations

Individual differences in parental care predict variations in offspring anxiety across species. Here, we examined whether between- and within-litter variations in maternal licking (a measure of rodent maternal care) predict infant rats' retention of an aversive association (a predictor of later anxiety-like behavior) and whether the relationship between maternal licking and infant fear memory is moderated by variations in infants' solicitation of maternal care. Unique marks were drawn on each pup, coded for fading, and touched up daily across the first week of life. Mark fading was used as an index of maternal licking where greater fading suggested more maternal licking the previous day. Separation-induced ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) were recorded to measure individual differences in solicitation of maternal care. Infants were fear conditioned at postnatal day (P) 17 and tested for fear of the conditioned stimulus (CS) 1 week later. Across litters, mark fading negatively predicted CS-elicited fear at test for male, but not female, offspring. This relationship was moderated by number of USVs emitted at P1, such that mark fading only predicted CS-elicited fear for males that emitted a low number of USVs. These results suggest that offspring solicitation may moderate the relationship between maternal care and fear/anxiety.

Stationary brush use in naive dairy heifers

Weaned dairy heifers are often housed in environments with few appropriate outlets for grooming or oral manipulation. Our objective was to characterize brush use by naive heifers, including patterns over time. In phase 1, groups of 4 heifers (n = 13 groups, 146.4 ± 9.1 d old, mean ± standard deviation; SD) were introduced to a bedded pack pen with 4 wall-mounted brushes (25.4 × 6.0 cm with 3.8-cm-long bristles). On d 1, 2, and 6 of exposure, continuous video recordings were used to observe 2 focal heifers per group for brush use (oral manipulation, grooming, and the sum of total brush use; all averaged at the group level). Latency to use a brush upon entering the pen was 3.4 ± 4.9 min (mean ± SD; range: 0.1 to 17.8 min among individuals). Heifers used the brushes for oral manipulation (39.7 ± 17.5% of brush use, mean ± SD) and grooming (60.3 ± 17.5%), primarily of their heads (89.9 ± 5.4% of grooming). In phase 2, heifers were moved in pairs (n = 13 pairs/treatment) to freestall pens either with (brush treatment) or without (control) brushes mounted inside the stalls for the first 5 d of phase 2 (d 8-12 of the study); on the last day (d 13 of the study), brushes were provided in both treatments. On d 8 (brush treatment) and 13 (both treatments), one focal heifer/pen was recorded for the same behaviors as in phase 1. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate brush use patterns across days (phase 1: d 1, 2, and 6; phase 2 brush treatment: d 8 vs. 13) and between treatments on d 13. In phase 1, brush use was greatest on d 1 [45.9 min; 95% confidence interval (CI): 33.2-63.3 min, back-transformed from natural-log values], decreased on d 2 (25.0 min, 95% CI: 18.4-34.0 min), but then remained steady until d 6 (21.0 min, 95% CI: 15.4-28.5 min); the initial reduction in total brush use was due to changes in grooming, but oral manipulation remained relatively static. In phase 2, heifers in the brush treatment showed similar usage on d 8 versus d 13 (3.8 vs. 3.7 min, 95% CI: 1.9-6.8 vs. 1.9-6.5 min). Compared with heifers with continuous brush access on d 8-12, those in the control treatment showed more brush use on d 13, both for oral manipulation (6.6 vs. 2.5 min, 95% CI: 3.8-11.1 vs. 1.3-4.5 min) and grooming (3.5 vs. 1.2 min, 95% CI: 1.9-5.7 vs. 0.5-2.3 min). Our study is the first to characterize stationary brush use in weaned dairy heifers. We conclude that, despite lacking previous experience, heifers use brushes for both grooming and oral manipulation.

Transmission of paternal retrieval behavior from fathers to sons in a biparental rodent

Transmission of maternal behavior across generations occurs, but less is known about paternal behavior. In biparental species like the California mouse (Peromyscus californicus), paternal care contributes to the well-being of offspring with lasting consequences on the brain and behavior. Paternal huddling/grooming behavior can be passed on to future generations, but whether paternal retrieval, which removes young from potential harm, is transmitted independently is unclear. We manipulated paternal retrieval experience through pup displacement manipulations, then examined whether males exposed to higher levels of paternal retrieval in development altered their adult retrieval behavior with their offspring. Males exposed to heightened paternal retrievals, as compared to reduced retrievals, retrieved their offspring more often but huddled/groomed offspring less during undisturbed natural observations. No differences were observed following a pup displacement challenge. The high paternal retrieval group also exhibited more physical activity and stereotypy. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that paternal retrieval levels are transmitted across generations and may function via mechanisms separate from huddling/grooming. One modifying factor may be anxiety because increased activity and stereotypy occurred in the high retrieval group. We speculate how the transmission of paternal retrievals may inform a protective parenting style.

The skin crawls, the stomach turns: ectoparasites and pathogens elicit distinct defensive responses in humans

Disgust has long been viewed as a primary motivator of defensive responses to threats posed by both microscopic pathogens and macroscopic ectoparasites. Although disgust can defend effectively against pathogens encountered through ingestion or incidental contact, it offers limited protection against ectoparasites, which actively pursue a host and attach to its surface. Humans might, therefore, possess a distinct ectoparasite defence system-including cutaneous sensory mechanisms and grooming behaviours-functionally suited to guard the body's surface. In two US studies and one in China, participants (N = 1079) viewed a range of ectoparasite- and pathogen-relevant video stimuli and reported their feelings, physiological sensations, and behavioural motivations. Participants reported more surface-guarding responses towards ectoparasite stimuli than towards pathogen stimuli, and more ingestion/contamination-reduction responses towards pathogen stimuli than towards ectoparasite stimuli. Like other species, humans appear to possess evolved psychobehavioural ectoparasite defence mechanisms that are distinct from pathogen defence mechanisms.

The same stress has divergent effects on social versus asocial manifestations of anxiety-like behavior over time

Stress may lead to augmented anxiety, which may, with time culminate in some form of anxiety disorder. Behavioral alterations related to increased anxiety can be broadly classified into two types-social, affecting interactions between individuals, and self-oriented, affecting the anxious individual only. While a growing body of literature now exists describing the effects of stress-induced anxiety on self-oriented behavior in animal models of anxiety disorders, the effects of such aberrant anxiety on social behavior has largely remained uncharacterized in these models. This study aims to fill this gap in our understanding by examining changes in social behavior following a single 2-hour episode of immobilization stress, which has been shown to cause delayed structural and functional changes in the amygdala. To this end, we examined social behavior, measured as active social interactions, anogenital sniffing, nose-to-nose contacts, allogrooming, actively following and crawling under, as well as self-oriented asocial behavior, manifested as self-grooming and rearing, in adult male rats. Stressed animals showed reduced social interaction 1 day after immobilization stress and this decrease was persistent for at least 10 days after stress. In contrast, individualistic behaviors were impaired only 10 days, but not 1 day later. Together, these results not only show that the same single episode of stress can elicit divergent effects on social and asocial measures of anxiety in the same animal, but also suggest that enhanced social anxiety soon after stress may also serve as an early indicator of its delayed behavioral effects.

Child Sex Offender Mind-Set and Grooming Strategies: A Discourse Analysis of Sex Offender Narratives from South Africa

Violence against children, particularly sexual violence continues to threaten South African society. Whilst severely under-reported, the perpetration of child sexual abuse (CSA) against boys and girls is a significant societal concern, underpinned by adverse childhood familial instability, childhood abuse in particular sexual abuse, violence, inequality and wider structural forces. The research base is growing, despite low disclosure rates and significant barriers to access. In order to better understand unique trajectories of perpetration of CSA, particular to the South African context, we conducted an in-depth qualitative study with twelve male child sex offenders who were attending a therapeutic, rehabilitation programme. They provided open discourse on the forms of enticement, exploitation or entrapment of child victims, including threats of harm, used to elicit compliance into sexual activities. They disclosed trauma dictated fantasy, and that they felt powerful and in control, when they sexually abused their victims. Most of the offenses took place in their own home. By delving into the strategies and mind set of the offender who sexually abuse children, this study provides evidence of a distinct and deliberate, 'grooming process' used by offenders; and emphasizes the cyclic patterns of offending. Understanding these truths explores its potential for the prevention of the CSA. In its entirety, the research deconstructs the strategies of the offender and examines their actual role in the onset of sexually offending behavior against children; in order to draw out the implications of these complexities for policy, practice, crime prevention, particularly in terms of the prevention of CSA.

Transdiagnostic dimensions in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms

BACKGROUND

Hierarchical structural models of psychopathology rarely extend to obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. The current study sought to examine the higher-order structure of the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRDs) in DSM-5: obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), hoarding disorder (HD), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder; HPD) and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder (SPD).

METHODS

Adult patients in a partial hospital program (N = 532) completed a dimensional measure of the five OCRDs. We used confirmatory factor analysis to identify the optimal model of the comorbidity structure. We then examined the associations between the transdiagnostic factors and internalizing and externalizing symptoms (i.e. depression, generalized anxiety, neuroticism, and drug/alcohol cravings).

RESULTS

The best fitting model included two correlated higher-order factors: an obsessions-compulsions (OC) factor (OCD, BDD, and HD), and a body-focused repetitive behavior (BFRB) factor (HPD and SPD). The OC factor, not the BFRB factor, had unique associations with internalizing symptoms (standardized effects = 0.42-0.66) and the BFRB factor, not the OC factor, had small marginally significant unique association with drug/alcohol cravings (standardized effect = 0.22, p = 0.088).

CONCLUSIONS

The results mirror findings from twin research and indicate that OCD, BDD, and HD share liability that is significantly associated with internalizing symptoms, but this liability may be relatively less important for BFRBs. Further research is needed to better examine the associations between BFRBs and addictive disorders.

Sexual Violence and the Coach-Athlete Relationship-a Scoping Review From Sport Sociological and Sport Psychological Perspectives

Sexual violence against athletes in elite and leisure sport has become of growing interest in recent years. In line with social media initiatives such as #SportToo and #CoachDontTouchMe and a rise in general media coverage, research in this field indicates an urgent need for action. These recent developments occasionally have led to no-touch policies, which may result in moral panic, uncertainty, and fear of unjustified suspicion among coaches. However, the role of closeness and distance in the development of sexual violence within the coach–athlete relationship has not yet been researched systematically. In this scoping review, the authors focus on the coach–athlete relationship, particularly its predispositions to sexual violence and how to prevent abusive relationships. Some characteristics typical of elite sport may predispose coaches to commit abuse, such as gender and power relations, the need for physical touch, hierarchical structures in sport, and trust and closeness between coaches and athletes. This scoping review follows an interdisciplinary approach combining sociological and psychological perspectives. It comprises 25 publications in English and German published from 2000 to 2019. The literature review highlights that closeness, power, blurred boundaries, and ambiguous roles are areas that seem to be crucial to the analysis of the coach–athlete relationship from both sociological and psychological perspectives.

The use of substances in sexual offending in a United States sample

Substance use is often involved in sexual offending. Understanding the ways in which substances are used in sexual offending is critical for developing prevention strategies. The present study explored the ways that substances are involved in the perpetration of sexual abuse against adults and minors, including intoxication and supplying substances to victims by individuals convicted of sexual offenses. Data were collected from the records of 2803 individuals convicted of sexual offenses in the United States. A series of binary logistic regressions found that offenses against adults were more likely to have alcohol or drugs involved than offenses against minors, while supplying substances to victims was less likely in intrafamilial than in extrafamilial offenses against minors. Findings suggest that implementing sexual violence prevention strategies (e.g. bystander intervention) in adult drinking contexts and integrating education about problematic substance use behaviors (e.g. grooming) during childhood prevention programs can aid in sexual abuse prevention.

The Impact of Adolescent Internet Addiction on Sexual Online Victimization: The Mediating Effects of Sexting and Body Self-Esteem

Adolescents’ problematic use of the internet and the risk of sexual online victimization are an increasing concern among families, researchers, professionals and society. This study aimed to analyze the interplay between adolescents’ addiction to social networks and internet, body self-esteem and sexual–erotic risk behavior online: sexting, sextortion and grooming. While sexting refers to the voluntary engagement in texting sexual–erotic messages, sextortion and grooming are means of sexual–erotic victimization through the use of the internet. Participants were 1763 adolescents (51% girls), aged 12 to 16 years (M = 14.56; SD = 1.16), from public (n = 1068; 60.60%) and private (n = 695; 39.40%) high schools in the Basque Country (Spain). We carried out structural equation modeling (SEM) using Mplus to assess the mediating effects of body self-esteem in the relationship between addiction to social media and internet and sexual–erotic risk behavior. The results showed that internet addiction predicts online sexual victimization; specifically, the best predictors of sexting, sextortion and grooming victimization were symptoms of internet addiction and geek behavior. Body self-esteem and sexting mediated the relationship between internet addiction and sexual online victimization in adolescents. These results highlight the importance of attending to adolescents’ mental health regarding their online behavior, considering the risk and protective factors involved, due to its close association with online sexual victimization.

The Indexical Voice: Communication of Personal States and Traits in Humans and Other Primates

Many studies of primate vocalization have been undertaken to improve our understanding of the evolution of language. Perhaps, for this reason, investigators have focused on calls that were thought to carry symbolic information about the environment. Here I suggest that even if these calls were in fact symbolic, there were independent reasons to question this approach in the first place. I begin by asking what kind of communication system would satisfy a species' biological needs. For example, where animals benefit from living in large groups, I ask how members would need to communicate to keep their groups from fragmenting. In this context, I discuss the role of social grooming and "close calls," including lip-smacking and grunting. Parallels exist in human societies, where information is exchanged about all kinds of things, often less about the nominal topic than the communicants themselves. This sort of indexical (or personal) information is vital to group living, which presupposes the ability to tolerate, relate to, and interact constructively with other individuals. Making indexical communication the focus of comparative research encourages consideration of somatic and behavioral cues that facilitate relationships and social benefits, including cooperation and collaboration. There is ample room here for a different and potentially more fruitful approach to communication in humans and other primates, one that focuses on personal appraisals, based on cues originating with individuals, rather than signals excited by environmental events.

Immune Defense Strategies of Queens of the Social Parasite Ant Acromyrmex ameliae and Queens of Its Natural Hosts

Social parasitism is well known in ants, but many aspects of this social phenomenon remain mysterious and unexplored. In some cases, parasite queens, who are able to mate very rarely end up producing brood and, thus, depend virtually on the labor of host ants. In this work, we sought to test the occurrence of grooming by host workers of Acromyrmex subterraneus subterraneus Forel, to their own queens and queens of the parasite Acromyrmex ameliae De Souza, Soares and Della Lucia and to compare the immune defense responses of parasite queens and queens of A. subterraneus subterraneus and Acromyrmex subterraneus brunneus Forel, the natural hosts. Duration and frequency of behavioral acts were recorded. The relative size of the bulla and the encapsulation response to a standardized antigen were analyzed. Regarding behavioral acts, self-grooming (duration and frequency) and allogrooming (duration) were statistically different between the species; the first is more frequent and lasted longer in parasite queens, while the second act lasted longer in host ants than in parasite ants. The bulla of A. ameliae was approximately 50% wider than those of its hosts. Parasite queens exhibited a stronger immune response than host queens. The results of this work contribute to elucidate potential mechanisms involved in the parasitism capacity of A. ameliae queens such as their strategies of immune defense.

Action detection using a neural network elucidates the genetics of mouse grooming behavior

Automated detection of complex animal behaviors remains a challenging problem in neuroscience, particularly for behaviors that consist of disparate sequential motions. Grooming is a prototypical stereotyped behavior that is often used as an endophenotype in psychiatric genetics. Here, we used mouse grooming behavior as an example and developed a general purpose neural network architecture capable of dynamic action detection at human observer-level performance and operating across dozens of mouse strains with high visual diversity. We provide insights into the amount of human annotated training data that are needed to achieve such performance. We surveyed grooming behavior in the open field in 2457 mice across 62 strains, determined its heritable components, conducted GWAS to outline its genetic architecture, and performed PheWAS to link human psychiatric traits through shared underlying genetics. Our general machine learning solution that automatically classifies complex behaviors in large datasets will facilitate systematic studies of behavioral mechanisms.