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Garber AI, Garcia de la Filia Molina A, Vea IM, Mongue AJ, Ross L, McCutcheon JP. Retention of an Endosymbiont for the Production of a Single Molecule. Genome Biol Evol 2024; 16:evae075. [PMID: 38577764 PMCID: PMC11032189 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evae075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Sap-feeding insects often maintain two or more nutritional endosymbionts that act in concert to produce compounds essential for insect survival. Many mealybugs have endosymbionts in a nested configuration: one or two bacterial species reside within the cytoplasm of another bacterium, and together, these bacteria have genomes that encode interdependent sets of genes needed to produce key nutritional molecules. Here, we show that the mealybug Pseudococcus viburni has three endosymbionts, one of which contributes only two unique genes that produce the host nutrition-related molecule chorismate. All three bacterial endosymbionts have tiny genomes, suggesting that they have been coevolving inside their insect host for millions of years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arkadiy I Garber
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution and School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - Isabelle M Vea
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Andrew J Mongue
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Laura Ross
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - John P McCutcheon
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution and School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
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2
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Renoz F. The nutritional dimension of facultative bacterial symbiosis in aphids: Current status and methodological considerations for future research. CURRENT RESEARCH IN INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 5:100070. [PMID: 38222793 PMCID: PMC10787254 DOI: 10.1016/j.cris.2023.100070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Aphids are valuable models for studying the functional diversity of bacterial symbiosis in insects. In addition to their ancestral obligate nutritional symbiont Buchnera aphidicola, these insects can host a myriad of so-called facultative symbionts. The diversity of these heritable bacterial associates is now well known, and some of the ecologically important traits associated with them have been well documented. Some twenty years ago, it was suggested that facultative symbionts could play an important role in aphid nutrition, notably by improving feeding performance on specific host plants, thus influencing the adaptation of these insects to host plants. However, the underlying mechanisms have never been elucidated, and the nutritional role that facultative symbionts might perform in aphids remains enigmatic. In this opinion piece, I put forward a series of arguments in support of the hypothesis that facultative symbionts play a central role in aphid nutrition and emphasize methodological considerations for testing this hypothesis in future work. In particular, I hypothesize that the metabolic capacities of B. aphidicola alone may not always be able to counterbalance the nutritional deficiencies of phloem sap. The association with one or several facultative symbionts with extensive metabolic capabilities would then be necessary to buffer the insect from host plant-derived nutrient deficiencies, thus enabling it to gain access to certain host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Renoz
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634, Japan
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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3
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Peng L, Hoban J, Joffe J, Smith AH, Carpenter M, Marcelis T, Patel V, Lynn-Bell N, Oliver KM, Russell JA. Cryptic community structure and metabolic interactions among the heritable facultative symbionts of the pea aphid. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:1712-1730. [PMID: 37702036 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Most insects harbour influential, yet non-essential heritable microbes in their hemocoel. Communities of these symbionts exhibit low diversity. But their frequent multi-species nature raises intriguing questions on roles for symbiont-symbiont synergies in host adaptation, and on the stability of the symbiont communities, themselves. In this study, we build on knowledge of species-defined symbiont community structure across US populations of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum. Through extensive symbiont genotyping, we show that pea aphids' microbiomes can be more precisely defined at the symbiont strain level, with strain variability shaping five out of nine previously reported co-infection trends. Field data provide a mixture of evidence for synergistic fitness effects and symbiont hitchhiking, revealing causes and consequences of these co-infection trends. To test whether within-host metabolic interactions predict common versus rare strain-defined communities, we leveraged the high relatedness of our dominant, community-defined symbiont strains vs. 12 pea aphid-derived Gammaproteobacteria with sequenced genomes. Genomic inference, using metabolic complementarity indices, revealed high potential for cooperation among one pair of symbionts-Serratia symbiotica and Rickettsiella viridis. Applying the expansion network algorithm, through additional use of pea aphid and obligate Buchnera symbiont genomes, Serratia and Rickettsiella emerged as the only symbiont community requiring both parties to expand holobiont metabolism. Through their joint expansion of the biotin biosynthesis pathway, these symbionts may span missing gaps, creating a multi-party mutualism within their nutrient-limited, phloem-feeding hosts. Recent, complementary gene inactivation, within the biotin pathways of Serratia and Rickettsiella, raises further questions on the origins of mutualisms and host-symbiont interdependencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyao Peng
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jessica Hoban
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jonah Joffe
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrew H Smith
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Melissa Carpenter
- Department of Biodiversity, Earth, and Environmental Science, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tracy Marcelis
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Vilas Patel
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Nicole Lynn-Bell
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Kerry M Oliver
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Jacob A Russell
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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4
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Kiefer JST, Bauer E, Okude G, Fukatsu T, Kaltenpoth M, Engl T. Cuticle supplementation and nitrogen recycling by a dual bacterial symbiosis in a family of xylophagous beetles. THE ISME JOURNAL 2023:10.1038/s41396-023-01415-y. [PMID: 37085551 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-023-01415-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
Many insects engage in stable nutritional symbioses with bacteria that supplement limiting essential nutrients to their host. While several plant sap-feeding Hemipteran lineages are known to be simultaneously associated with two or more endosymbionts with complementary biosynthetic pathways to synthesize amino acids or vitamins, such co-obligate symbioses have not been functionally characterized in other insect orders. Here, we report on the characterization of a dual co-obligate, bacteriome-localized symbiosis in a family of xylophagous beetles using comparative genomics, fluorescence microscopy, and phylogenetic analyses. Across the beetle family Bostrichidae, most investigated species harbored the Bacteroidota symbiont Shikimatogenerans bostrichidophilus that encodes the shikimate pathway to produce tyrosine precursors in its severely reduced genome, likely supplementing the beetles' cuticle biosynthesis, sclerotisation, and melanisation. One clade of Bostrichid beetles additionally housed the co-obligate symbiont Bostrichicola ureolyticus that is inferred to complement the function of Shikimatogenerans by recycling urea and provisioning the essential amino acid lysine, thereby providing additional benefits on nitrogen-poor diets. Both symbionts represent ancient associations within the Bostrichidae that have subsequently experienced genome erosion and co-speciation with their hosts. While Bostrichicola was repeatedly lost, Shikimatogenerans has been retained throughout the family and exhibits a perfect pattern of co-speciation. Our results reveal that co-obligate symbioses with complementary metabolic capabilities occur beyond the well-known sap-feeding Hemiptera and highlight the importance of symbiont-mediated cuticle supplementation and nitrogen recycling for herbivorous beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Simon Thilo Kiefer
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Eugen Bauer
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Genta Okude
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, 305-8566, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takema Fukatsu
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, 305-8566, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, 305-8571, Japan
| | - Martin Kaltenpoth
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias Engl
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Organismic and Molecular Evolution, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany.
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany.
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Danneels B, Blignaut M, Marti G, Sieber S, Vandamme P, Meyer M, Carlier A. Cyclitol metabolism is a central feature of Burkholderia leaf symbionts. Environ Microbiol 2023; 25:454-472. [PMID: 36451580 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The symbioses between plants of the Rubiaceae and Primulaceae families with Burkholderia bacteria represent unique and intimate plant-bacterial relationships. Many of these interactions have been identified through PCR-dependent typing methods, but there is little information available about their functional and ecological roles. We assembled 17 new endophyte genomes representing endophytes from 13 plant species, including those of two previously unknown associations. Genomes of leaf endophytes belonging to Burkholderia s.l. show extensive signs of genome reduction, albeit to varying degrees. Except for one endophyte, none of the bacterial symbionts could be isolated on standard microbiological media. Despite their taxonomic diversity, all endophyte genomes contained gene clusters linked to the production of specialized metabolites, including genes linked to cyclitol sugar analog metabolism and in one instance non-ribosomal peptide synthesis. These genes and gene clusters are unique within Burkholderia s.l. and are likely horizontally acquired. We propose that the acquisition of secondary metabolite gene clusters through horizontal gene transfer is a prerequisite for the evolution of a stable association between these endophytes and their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram Danneels
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- LIPME, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
- Computational Biology Unit, Department of Informatics, University of Bergen, Norway
| | - Monique Blignaut
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Guillaume Marti
- Metatoul-AgromiX Platform, LRSV, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UT3, INP, Toulouse, France
- MetaboHUB-MetaToul, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, Toulouse, France
| | - Simon Sieber
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Vandamme
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marion Meyer
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Aurélien Carlier
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- LIPME, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
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6
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Renoz F, Ambroise J, Bearzatto B, Fakhour S, Parisot N, Ribeiro Lopes M, Gala JL, Calevro F, Hance T. The Di-Symbiotic Systems in the Aphids Sipha maydis and Periphyllus lyropictus Provide a Contrasting Picture of Recent Co-Obligate Nutritional Endosymbiosis in Aphids. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071360. [PMID: 35889078 PMCID: PMC9317480 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dependence on multiple nutritional bacterial symbionts forming a metabolic unit has repeatedly evolved in many insect species that feed on nutritionally unbalanced diets such as plant sap. This is the case for aphids of the subfamilies Lachninae and Chaitophorinae, which have evolved di-symbiotic systems in which the ancient obligate nutritional symbiont Buchnera aphidicola is metabolically complemented by an additional nutritional symbiont acquired more recently. Deciphering how different symbionts integrate both metabolically and anatomically in such systems is crucial to understanding how complex nutritional symbiotic systems function and evolve. In this study, we sequenced and analyzed the genomes of the symbionts B. aphidicola and Serratia symbiotica associated with the Chaitophorinae aphids Sipha maydis and Periphyllus lyropictus. Our results show that, in these two species, B. aphidicola and S. symbiotica complement each other metabolically (and their hosts) for the biosynthesis of essential amino acids and vitamins, but with distinct metabolic reactions supported by each symbiont depending on the host species. Furthermore, the S. symbiotica symbiont associated with S. maydis appears to be strictly compartmentalized into the specialized host cells housing symbionts in aphids, the bacteriocytes, whereas the S. symbiotica symbiont associated with P. lyropictus exhibits a highly invasive phenotype, presumably because it is capable of expressing a larger set of virulence factors, including a complete flagellum for bacterial motility. Such contrasting levels of metabolic and anatomical integration for two S. symbiotica symbionts that were recently acquired as nutritional co-obligate partners reflect distinct coevolutionary processes specific to each association.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Renoz
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium;
- Univ Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (N.P.); (M.R.L.); (F.C.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jérôme Ambroise
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium; (J.A.); (B.B.); (J.-L.G.)
| | - Bertrand Bearzatto
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium; (J.A.); (B.B.); (J.-L.G.)
| | - Samir Fakhour
- Department of Plant Protection, National Institute of Agricultural Research, Avenue Ennasr, BP 415 Rabat Principale, Rabat 10090, Morocco;
| | - Nicolas Parisot
- Univ Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (N.P.); (M.R.L.); (F.C.)
| | - Mélanie Ribeiro Lopes
- Univ Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (N.P.); (M.R.L.); (F.C.)
| | - Jean-Luc Gala
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200 Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium; (J.A.); (B.B.); (J.-L.G.)
| | - Federica Calevro
- Univ Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, F-69621 Villeurbanne, France; (N.P.); (M.R.L.); (F.C.)
| | - Thierry Hance
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium;
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7
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Renoz F, Lopes MR, Gaget K, Duport G, Eloy MC, Geelhand de Merxem B, Hance T, Calevro F. Compartmentalized into Bacteriocytes but Highly Invasive: the Puzzling Case of the Co-Obligate Symbiont Serratia symbiotica in the Aphid Periphyllus lyropictus. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0045722. [PMID: 35647657 PMCID: PMC9241954 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00457-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Dependence on multiple nutritional symbionts that form a metabolic unit has evolved many times in insects. Although it has been postulated that host dependence on these metabolically interconnected symbionts is sustained by their high degree of anatomical integration (these symbionts are often housed in distinct symbiotic cells, the bacteriocytes, assembled into a common symbiotic organ, the bacteriome), the developmental aspects of such multipartner systems have received little attention. Aphids of the subfamilies Chaitophorinae and Lachninae typically harbor disymbiotic systems in which the metabolic capabilities of the ancient obligate symbiont Buchnera aphidicola are complemented by those of a more recently acquired nutritional symbiont, often belonging to the species Serratia symbiotica. Here, we used microscopy approaches to finely characterize the tissue tropism and infection dynamics of the disymbiotic system formed by B. aphidicola and S. symbiotica in the Norway maple aphid Periphyllus lyropictus (Chaitophorinae). Our observations show that, in this aphid, the co-obligate symbiont S. symbiotica exhibits a dual lifestyle: intracellular by being housed in large syncytial bacteriocytes embedded between B. aphidicola-containing bacteriocytes in a well-organized compartmentalization pattern, and extracellular by massively invading the digestive tract and other tissues during embryogenesis. This is the first reported case of an obligate aphid symbiont that is internalized in bacteriocytes but simultaneously adopts an extracellular lifestyle. This unusual infection pattern for an obligate insect symbiont suggests that some bacteriocyte-associated obligate symbionts, despite their integration into a cooperative partnership, still exhibit invasive behavior and escape strict compartmentalization in bacteriocytes. IMPORTANCE Multipartner nutritional endosymbioses have evolved many times in insects. In Chaitophorinae aphids, the eroded metabolic capabilities of the ancient obligate symbiont B. aphidicola are complemented by those of more recently acquired symbionts. Here, we report the atypical case of the co-obligate S. symbiotica symbiont associated with P. lyropictus. This bacterium is compartmentalized into bacteriocytes nested into the ones harboring the more ancient symbiont B. aphidicola, reflecting metabolic convergences between the two symbionts. At the same time, S. symbiotica exhibits highly invasive behavior by colonizing various host tissues, including the digestive tract during embryogenesis. The discovery of this unusual phenotype for a co-obligate symbiont reveals a new face of multipartner nutritional endosymbiosis in insects. In particular, it shows that co-obligate symbionts can retain highly invasive traits and suggests that host dependence on these bacterial partners may evolve prior to their strict compartmentalization into specialized host structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Renoz
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Université de Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, Villeurbanne, France
| | | | - Karen Gaget
- Université de Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Gabrielle Duport
- Université de Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Marie-Christine Eloy
- Louvain Institute of Biomolecular Science and Technology, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | | | - Thierry Hance
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Federica Calevro
- Université de Lyon, INSA Lyon, INRAE, BF2I, UMR203, Villeurbanne, France
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8
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Transitional genomes and nutritional role reversals identified for dual symbionts of adelgids (Aphidoidea: Adelgidae). THE ISME JOURNAL 2022; 16:642-654. [PMID: 34508228 PMCID: PMC8857208 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-01102-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Many plant-sap-feeding insects have maintained a single, obligate, nutritional symbiont over the long history of their lineage. This senior symbiont may be joined by one or more junior symbionts that compensate for gaps in function incurred through genome-degradative forces. Adelgids are sap-sucking insects that feed solely on conifer trees and follow complex life cycles in which the diet fluctuates in nutrient levels. Adelgids are unusual in that both senior and junior symbionts appear to have been replaced repeatedly over their evolutionary history. Genomes can provide clues to understanding symbiont replacements, but only the dual symbionts of hemlock adelgids have been examined thus far. Here, we sequence and compare genomes of four additional dual-symbiont pairs in adelgids. We show that these symbionts are nutritional partners originating from diverse bacterial lineages and exhibiting wide variation in general genome characteristics. Although dual symbionts cooperate to produce nutrients, the balance of contributions varies widely across pairs, and total genome contents reflect a range of ages and degrees of degradation. Most symbionts appear to be in transitional states of genome reduction. Our findings support a hypothesis of periodic symbiont turnover driven by fluctuating selection for nutritional provisioning related to gains and losses of complex life cycles in their hosts.
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9
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Pons I, Scieur N, Dhondt L, Renard ME, Renoz F, Hance T. Pervasiveness of the symbiont Serratia symbiotica in the aphid natural environment: distribution, diversity and evolution at a multitrophic level. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2022; 98:6526308. [PMID: 35142841 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiac012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Symbioses are significant drivers of insect evolutionary ecology. Despite recent findings that these associations can emerge from environmentally derived bacterial precursors, there is still little information on how these potential progenitors of insect symbionts circulate in trophic systems. Serratia symbiotica represents a valuable model for deciphering evolutionary scenarios of bacterial acquisition by insects, as its diversity includes gut-associated strains that retained the ability to live independently of their hosts, representing a potential reservoir for symbioses emergence. Here, we conducted a field study to examine the distribution and diversity of S. symbiotica found in aphid populations, and in different compartments of their surrounding environment. Twenty % of aphids colonies were infected with S. symbiotica, including a wide diversity of strains with varied tissue tropism corresponding to different lifestyle. We also showed that the prevalence of S. symbiotica is influenced by seasonal temperatures. We found that S. symbiotica was present in non-aphid species and in host plants, and that its prevalence in these samples was higher when associated aphid colonies were infected. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses suggest the existence of horizontal transfers between the different trophic levels. These results provide a new picture of the pervasiveness of an insect symbiont in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inès Pons
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Nora Scieur
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Linda Dhondt
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Marie-Eve Renard
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - François Renoz
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Thierry Hance
- Earth and Life Institute, Biodiversity Research Centre, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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10
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Renoz F, Foray V, Ambroise J, Baa-Puyoulet P, Bearzatto B, Mendez GL, Grigorescu AS, Mahillon J, Mardulyn P, Gala JL, Calevro F, Hance T. At the Gate of Mutualism: Identification of Genomic Traits Predisposing to Insect-Bacterial Symbiosis in Pathogenic Strains of the Aphid Symbiont Serratia symbiotica. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:660007. [PMID: 34268133 PMCID: PMC8275996 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.660007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutualistic associations between insects and heritable bacterial symbionts are ubiquitous in nature. The aphid symbiont Serratia symbiotica is a valuable candidate for studying the evolution of bacterial symbiosis in insects because it includes a wide diversity of strains that reflect the diverse relationships in which bacteria can be engaged with insects, from pathogenic interactions to obligate intracellular mutualism. The recent discovery of culturable strains, which are hypothesized to resemble the ancestors of intracellular strains, provide an opportunity to study the mechanisms underlying bacterial symbiosis in its early stages. In this study, we analyzed the genomes of three of these culturable strains that are pathogenic to aphid hosts, and performed comparative genomic analyses including mutualistic host-dependent strains. All three genomes are larger than those of the host-restricted S. symbiotica strains described so far, and show significant enrichment in pseudogenes and mobile elements, suggesting that these three pathogenic strains are in the early stages of the adaptation to their host. Compared to their intracellular mutualistic relatives, the three strains harbor a greater diversity of genes coding for virulence factors and metabolic pathways, suggesting that they are likely adapted to infect new hosts and are a potential source of metabolic innovation for insects. The presence in their genomes of secondary metabolism gene clusters associated with the production of antimicrobial compounds and phytotoxins supports the hypothesis that S. symbiotia symbionts evolved from plant-associated strains and that plants may serve as intermediate hosts. Mutualistic associations between insects and bacteria are the result of independent transitions to endosymbiosis initiated by the acquisition of environmental progenitors. In this context, the genomes of free-living S. symbiotica strains provide a rare opportunity to study the inventory of genes held by bacterial associates of insects that are at the gateway to a host-dependent lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Renoz
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Vincent Foray
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Jérôme Ambroise
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | | | - Bertrand Bearzatto
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Gipsi Lima Mendez
- Louvain Institute of Biomolecular Science and Technology (LIBST), Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | | | - Jacques Mahillon
- Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Patrick Mardulyn
- Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jean-Luc Gala
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, Belgium
| | - Federica Calevro
- Univ Lyon, INSA-Lyon, INRAE, BF2i, UMR203, F-69621, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Thierry Hance
- Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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11
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Danneels B, Viruel J, Mcgrath K, Janssens SB, Wales N, Wilkin P, Carlier A. Patterns of transmission and horizontal gene transfer in the Dioscorea sansibarensis leaf symbiosis revealed by whole-genome sequencing. Curr Biol 2021; 31:2666-2673.e4. [PMID: 33852872 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Leaves of the wild yam species Dioscorea sansibarensis display prominent forerunner or "drip" tips filled with extracellular bacteria of the species Orrella dioscoreae.1 This species of yam is native to Madagascar and tropical Africa and reproduces mainly asexually through aerial bulbils and underground tubers, which also contain a small population of O. dioscoreae.2,3 Despite apparent vertical transmission, the genome of O. dioscoreae does not show any of the hallmarks of genome erosion often found in hereditary symbionts (e.g., small genome size and accumulation of pseudogenes).4-6 We investigated here the range and distribution of leaf symbiosis between D. sansibarensis and O. dioscoreae using preserved leaf samples from herbarium collections that were originally collected from various locations in Africa. We recovered DNA from the extracellular symbiont in all samples, showing that the symbiosis is widespread throughout continental Africa and Madagascar. Despite the degraded nature of this DNA, we constructed 17 symbiont genomes using de novo methods without relying on a reference. Phylogenetic and genomic analyses revealed that horizontal transmission of symbionts and horizontal gene transfer have shaped the evolution of the symbiont. These mechanisms could help explain lack of signs of reductive genome evolution despite an obligate host-associated lifestyle. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of D. sansibarensis based on plastid genomes revealed a strong geographical clustering of samples and provided evidence that the symbiosis originated at least 13 mya, earlier than previously estimated.3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram Danneels
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Juan Viruel
- Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, UK
| | - Krista Mcgrath
- Department of Prehistory and Institute of Environmental Science and Technology (ICTA), Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; Department of Archaeology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Steven B Janssens
- Meise Botanic Garden, 1860 Meise, Belgium; Department of Biology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathan Wales
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Paul Wilkin
- Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, UK
| | - Aurélien Carlier
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; LIPME, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, 31320 Castanet-Tolosan, France.
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12
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Rouïl J, Jousselin E, Coeur d’acier A, Cruaud C, Manzano-Marín A. The Protector within: Comparative Genomics of APSE Phages across Aphids Reveals Rampant Recombination and Diverse Toxin Arsenals. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 12:878-889. [PMID: 32386316 PMCID: PMC7313666 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evaa089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phages can fundamentally alter the physiology and metabolism of their hosts. Although these phages are ubiquitous in the bacterial world, they have seldom been described among endosymbiotic bacteria. One notable exception is the APSE phage that is found associated with the gammaproteobacterial Hamiltonella defensa, hosted by several insect species. This secondary facultative endosymbiont is not necessary for the survival of its hosts but can infect certain individuals or even whole populations. Its infection in aphids is often associated with protection against parasitoid wasps. This protective phenotype has actually been linked to the infection of the symbiont strain with an APSE, which carries a toxin cassette that varies among so-called "types." In the present work, we seek to expand our understanding of the diversity of APSE phages as well as the relations of their Hamiltonella hosts. For this, we assembled and annotated the full genomes of 16 APSE phages infecting Hamiltonella symbionts across ten insect species. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses suggest that recombination has occurred repeatedly among lineages. Comparative genomics of the phage genomes revealed two variable regions that are useful for phage typing. Additionally, we find that mobile elements could play a role in the acquisition of new genes in the toxin cassette. Altogether, we provide an unprecedented view of APSE diversity and their genome evolution across aphids. This genomic investigation will provide a valuable resource for the design and interpretation of experiments aiming at understanding the protective phenotype these phages confer to their insect hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff Rouïl
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université de Montpellier, France
| | - Emmanuelle Jousselin
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université de Montpellier, France
| | - Armelle Coeur d’acier
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRAE, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université de Montpellier, France
| | - Corinne Cruaud
- Genoscope, Institut de Biologie François-Jacob, Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique (CEA), Université Paris-Saclay, Évry, France
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13
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Parallel Evolution in the Integration of a Co-obligate Aphid Symbiosis. Curr Biol 2020; 30:1949-1957.e6. [PMID: 32243856 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Insects evolve dependence-often extreme-on microbes for nutrition. This includes cases in which insects harbor multiple endosymbionts that function collectively as a metabolic unit [1-5]. How do these dependences originate [6], and is there a predictable sequence of events leading to the integration of new symbionts? While co-obligate symbioses, in which hosts rely on multiple nutrient-provisioning symbionts, have evolved numerous times across sap-feeding insects, there is only one known case in aphids, involving Buchnera aphidicola and Serratia symbiotica in the Lachninae subfamily [7-9]. Here, we identify three additional independent transitions to the same co-obligate symbiosis in different aphids. Comparing recent and ancient associations allow us to investigate intermediate stages of metabolic and anatomical integration of Serratia. We find that these uniquely replicated evolutionary events support the idea that co-obligate associations initiate in a predictable manner-through parallel evolutionary processes. Specifically, we show how the repeated losses of the riboflavin and peptidoglycan pathways in Buchnera lead to dependence on Serratia. We then provide evidence of a stepwise process of symbiont integration, whereby dependence evolves first. Then, essential amino acid pathways are lost (at ∼30-60 mya), which coincides with the increased anatomical integration of the companion symbiont. Finally, we demonstrate that dependence can evolve ahead of specialized structures (e.g., bacteriocytes), and in one case with no direct nutritional basis. More generally, our results suggest the energetic costs of synthesizing nutrients may provide a unified explanation for the sequence of gene losses that occur during the evolution of co-obligate symbiosis.
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14
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Xu TT, Jiang LY, Chen J, Qiao GX. Host Plants Influence the Symbiont Diversity of Eriosomatinae (Hemiptera: Aphididae). INSECTS 2020; 11:E217. [PMID: 32244698 PMCID: PMC7240687 DOI: 10.3390/insects11040217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Eriosomatinae is a particular aphid group with typically heteroecious holocyclic life cycle, exhibiting strong primary host plant specialization and inducing galls on primary host plants. Aphids are frequently associated with bacterial symbionts, which can play fundamental roles in the ecology and evolution of their host aphids. However, the bacterial communities in Eriosomatinae are poorly known. In the present study, using high-throughput sequencing of the bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene, we surveyed the bacterial flora of eriosomatines and explored the associations between symbiont diversity and aphid relatedness, aphid host plant and geographical distribution. The microbiota of Eriosomatinae is dominated by the heritable primary endosymbiont Buchnera and several facultative symbionts. The primary endosymbiont Buchnera is expectedly the most abundant symbiont across all species. Six facultative symbionts were identified. Regiella was the most commonly identified facultative symbiont, and multiple infections of facultative symbionts were detected in the majority of the samples. Ordination analyses and statistical tests show that the symbiont community of aphids feeding on plants from the family Ulmaceae were distinguishable from aphids feeding on other host plants. Species in Eriosomatinae feeding on different plants are likely to carry different symbiont compositions. The symbiont distributions seem to be not related to taxonomic distance and geographical distance. Our findings suggest that host plants can affect symbiont maintenance, and will improve our understanding of the interactions between aphids, their symbionts and ecological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Ting Xu
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (T.-T.X.); (L.-Y.J.)
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Li-Yun Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (T.-T.X.); (L.-Y.J.)
| | - Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (T.-T.X.); (L.-Y.J.)
| | - Ge-Xia Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; (T.-T.X.); (L.-Y.J.)
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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15
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Draft Genome Sequences of Two Cultivable Strains of the Bacterial Symbiont Serratia symbiotica. Microbiol Resour Announc 2020; 9:9/10/e01579-19. [PMID: 32139562 PMCID: PMC7171224 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01579-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Serratia symbiotica, one of the most frequent symbiont species in aphids, includes strains that exhibit various lifestyles ranging from free-living to obligate intracellular mutualism. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of two strains, namely, 24.1 and Apa8A1, isolated from aphids of the genus Aphis, consisting of genome sizes of 3,089,091 bp and 3,232,107 bp, respectively. These genome sequences may provide new insights into how mutualistic interactions between bacteria and insects evolve and are shaped. Serratia symbiotica, one of the most frequent symbiont species in aphids, includes strains that exhibit various lifestyles ranging from free-living to obligate intracellular mutualism. Here, we report the draft genome sequences of two strains, namely, 24.1 and Apa8A1, isolated from aphids of the genus Aphis, consisting of genome sizes of 3,089,091 bp and 3,232,107 bp, respectively. These genome sequences may provide new insights into how mutualistic interactions between bacteria and insects evolve and are shaped.
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16
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Patel V, Chevignon G, Manzano-Marín A, Brandt JW, Strand MR, Russell JA, Oliver KM. Cultivation-Assisted Genome of Candidatus Fukatsuia symbiotica; the Enigmatic "X-Type" Symbiont of Aphids. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 11:3510-3522. [PMID: 31725149 PMCID: PMC7145644 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evz252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heritable symbionts are common in terrestrial arthropods and often provide beneficial services to hosts. Unlike obligate, nutritional symbionts that largely persist under strict host control within specialized host cells, heritable facultative symbionts exhibit large variation in within-host lifestyles and services rendered with many retaining the capacity to transition among roles. One enigmatic symbiont, Candidatus Fukatsuia symbiotica, frequently infects aphids with reported roles ranging from pathogen, defensive symbiont, mutualism exploiter, and nutritional co-obligate symbiont. Here, we used an in vitro culture-assisted protocol to sequence the genome of a facultative strain of Fukatsuia from pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum). Phylogenetic and genomic comparisons indicate that Fukatsuia is an aerobic heterotroph, which together with Regiella insecticola and Hamiltonella defensa form a clade of heritable facultative symbionts within the Yersiniaceae (Enterobacteriales). These three heritable facultative symbionts largely share overlapping inventories of genes associated with housekeeping functions, metabolism, and nutrient acquisition, while varying in complements of mobile DNA. One unusual feature of Fukatsuia is its strong tendency to occur as a coinfection with H. defensa. However, the overall similarity of gene inventories among aphid heritable facultative symbionts suggests that metabolic complementarity is not the basis for coinfection, unless playing out on a H. defensa strain-specific basis. We also compared the pea aphid Fukatsuia with a strain from the aphid Cinara confinis (Lachninae) where it is reported to have transitioned to co-obligate status to support decaying Buchnera function. Overall, the two genomes are very similar with no clear genomic signatures consistent with such a transition, which suggests co-obligate status in C. confinis was a recent event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vilas Patel
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia
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17
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Manzano-Marı N A, Coeur d'acier A, Clamens AL, Orvain C, Cruaud C, Barbe V, Jousselin E. Serial horizontal transfer of vitamin-biosynthetic genes enables the establishment of new nutritional symbionts in aphids' di-symbiotic systems. THE ISME JOURNAL 2020; 14:259-273. [PMID: 31624345 PMCID: PMC6908640 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0533-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 08/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Many insects depend on obligate mutualistic bacteria to provide essential nutrients lacking from their diet. Most aphids, whose diet consists of phloem, rely on the bacterial endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola to supply essential amino acids and B vitamins. However, in some aphid species, provision of these nutrients is partitioned between Buchnera and a younger bacterial partner, whose identity varies across aphid lineages. Little is known about the origin and the evolutionary stability of these di-symbiotic systems. It is also unclear whether the novel symbionts merely compensate for losses in Buchnera or carry new nutritional functions. Using whole-genome endosymbiont sequences of nine Cinara aphids that harbour an Erwinia-related symbiont to complement Buchnera, we show that the Erwinia association arose from a single event of symbiont lifestyle shift, from a free-living to an obligate intracellular one. This event resulted in drastic genome reduction, long-term genome stasis, and co-divergence with aphids. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation reveals that Erwinia inhabits its own bacteriocytes near Buchnera's. Altogether these results depict a scenario for the establishment of Erwinia as an obligate symbiont that mirrors Buchnera's. Additionally, we found that the Erwinia vitamin-biosynthetic genes not only compensate for Buchnera's deficiencies, but also provide a new nutritional function; whose genes have been horizontally acquired from a Sodalis-related bacterium. A subset of these genes have been subsequently transferred to a new Hamiltonella co-obligate symbiont in one specific Cinara lineage. These results show that the establishment and dynamics of multi-partner endosymbioses can be mediated by lateral gene transfers between co-ocurring symbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Manzano-Marı N
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - Armelle Coeur d'acier
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Anne-Laure Clamens
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Céline Orvain
- Institut de Biologie François-Jacob, CEA, Genoscope, Évry Cedex, France
| | - Corinne Cruaud
- Institut de Biologie François-Jacob, CEA, Genoscope, Évry Cedex, France
| | - Valérie Barbe
- Institut de Biologie François-Jacob, CEA, Genoscope, Évry Cedex, France
| | - Emmanuelle Jousselin
- UMR 1062 Centre de Biologie pour la Gestion des Populations, INRA, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ. Montpellier, Montpellier, France
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