Longitudinal Evidence for the Effects of Social Group Engagement on the Cognitive and Mental Health of Chinese Retirees

A latent profile analysis of the nature of social group memberships and their contribution to retirement outcomes

Positive experiences of groups (e.g., the extent to which groups are important and supportive) tend to be associated with better retirement adjustment outcomes. However, group experiences are not always positive, and we know little about their varied contribution to adjustment outcomes. We addressed this gap by exploring the nature of social group memberships - in terms of varying positive and negative experiences of groups - to better understand how social group memberships shape retirement adjustment, life satisfaction and mental health. A latent profile analysis (using data from 489 retirees and their membership of 1887 groups) identified four profiles of social group memberships: optimal (63%), slightly straining (13%), low-supportive (18%) and ambivalent (6%). Subsequent regression analysis showed that these different profiles of group membership were differentially associated with retirement adjustment outcomes: belonging to more optimal groups was associated with better perceived adjustment, higher life satisfaction and better mental health, while belonging to slightly straining and ambivalent groups contributed to poorer adjustment, lower life satisfaction and greater depression. These findings have implications for theory and practice, not least because they advance our understanding of the diversity of people's group memberships and their contribution to retirement and health outcomes.

Modelling Age-Varying Associations among Group Memberships, Neighborhood Connectedness, and Well-Being

Individuals who maintain group memberships in their community tend to experience improved well-being relative to those who participate in few or no groups. There are, however, few investigations targeting variability in the correlates of group membership across the lifespan. The present examination probed age-related variability in the association between group memberships and subjective connectedness as well as well-being. Participants included 3,940 (mean age = 45.61 years, standard deviation [SD] = 15.62) Canadian and American respondents who completed an online survey during August of 2020 (i.e., amidst the COVID-19 pandemic). Time-varying effects modelling was used to estimate coefficients for group membership at each age within the sample. Memberships in social groups positively predicted connectedness, and this association was strongest in middle-to-older age; a similar association was also evident when predicting well-being. Connectedness was also a positive predictor of well-being throughout most ages. These findings build on emerging research conveying how group memberships have significance for people currently in middle-to-older age.

Integrating Lifestyle Factor Science into Neuropsychological Practice: A National Academy of Neuropsychology Education Paper

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this paper is to review evidence and clinical implications related to lifestyle activities associated with promoting brain and cognitive health. Our review targets four key lifestyle factors: physical activity and exercise, social engagement, cognitively stimulating activity, and consuming Mediterranean-style diets.

METHOD

We conducted a critical review of the lifestyle factor literature in the four domains listed earlier. We contextualize this literature review by translating findings, when possible, into evidence-based recommendations to consider when providing neuropsychological services.

RESULTS

There is significant current evidence supporting the role of physical activity and exercise, social engagement, cognitively stimulating activity, and consuming Mediterranean-style diets on positive brain and cognitive health outcomes. While some null findings are present in all four areas reviewed, the weight of the evidence supports the notion that engaging in these activities may promote brain and cognitive functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical neuropsychologists can have confidence in recommending engagement in physical activity, social activity, and cognitively stimulating activity, and adhering to a Mediterranean-style diet to promote brain and cognitive health. We discuss limitations in existing lifestyle factor research and future directions to enhance the existing evidence base, including additional research with historically underrepresented groups and individuals with neurological conditions.

Subjective Well-Being and Related Factors among Independent, Healthy, Community-Dwelling Older Adults in Japan

(1) Background: Subjective well-being (SWB) is internationally recognized as an important health-related factor for most age groups and is particularly influential for life quality and expectancy in independent, healthy, community-dwelling older adults. However, the physical function and community participation correlates of SWB in independent living older adults in super-aging societies and other influencing factors remain underexplored. (2) Methods: A total of 926 independent, healthy, community-dwelling older adults aged 65 years and above registered in Yokohama, Japan, were included. Respondents' mean age was 78.1 years (standard deviation = 6.7), and 74.0% were women. The dependent variable was SWB. The independent variables were respondents' demographic characteristics, physical factors (visual, hearing, and cognitive functions, and mobility), and community and social factors (participation in community groups, social networks, and community commitment. (3) Results: The mean (standard deviation) WHO-5 score was 16.3 (5.1). Significant factors associated with WHO-5 score were visual function (odds ratio [OR]: 0.708; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.352-0.690), hearing function (OR: 0.615; CI: 0.431-0.878), community groups (OR: 1.310; CI: 1.003-1.059), community commitments (OR: 1.180; CI: 1.132-1.231), and social networks (OR: 1.525; CI: 1.142-2.037) adjusted for the effects of demographic factors. (4) Conclusions: These findings are important because factors associated with SWB are likely to contribute to individual well-being and longevity and to developing a healthy super-aged society.

Depressive symptoms among older empty nesters in China: the moderating effects of social contact and contact with one's children

OBJECTIVES

Mental health for older people has become a major social concern. Literature has shown that older people, especially when they become empty nesters-when a parent lives alone or lives with his/her spouse after the youngest child leaves home-may start to develop various mental health problems due to reduced contacts with their children.

Using fixed-effects, multivariate regression with a difference-in-differences approach and propensity score matching, this paper examines the relationship between being an empty nester and mental health among older people in China, and the moderating effects of social contact and contact with one's children in terms of mental health. Our data come from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study of 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2018.

RESULTS

We found that, in the short term, the mental health of older people may not be affected after they became empty nesters. But in the longer term, if they did not have regular contact with their children, their mental health would deteriorate with time. Social contact, especially cognitive activities, was beneficial to the mental health of the older empty nesters. We also found that for older empty nesters with disabilities, frequent social contact and contact with their children were more important.

CONCLUSION

We urge the government to promote community-based social activities for older people, especially for those with functional limitations.

The changes in feeling of loneliness after retirement among baby boomers and pre-boomers in Taiwan: Do work-family conflict before retirement and social engagement after retirement matter?

Significance

Few studies have analyzed how loneliness-related factors differ across generations for older adults in non-Western societies. Building upon the stress process model, this study aimed to explore the relationships between work-family conflict before retirement, social engagement after retirement and changes in loneliness after retirement among retirees across two birth cohorts (Baby Boomers and pre-Boomers) in Taiwan.

Methods

Data from the Taiwan Health and Retirement Study, a nationwide retired cohort sample collected from two waves between 2015/2016 and 2018/2019, was analyzed. A total of 2370 retirees aged 50–74 years were included in the analysis after excluding those who died or were lost to follow-up. Multivariate multinomial logistic models were used to estimate four types of changes in loneliness: (1) remaining not lonely, (2) becoming not lonely, (3) becoming lonely, and (4) remaining lonely.

Results

About two-thirds of the retirees remained not lonely, and less than 10% maintained their feelings of loneliness across two waves. Multinomial logit models showed that both cohorts who experienced work-family conflict before retirement and stressful life events after retirement had higher odds of remaining lonely than those who remained not lonely. However, an increase in social engagement, especially social contact, appeared to be a protective factor against becoming and remaining lonely for both cohorts. Yet, work-related characteristics before retirement were significantly related to the changes in loneliness among pre-Boomers rather than Baby Boomers.

Conclusions

The results suggest that work-family conflict before retirement produces an exacerbating effect; in contrast, social engagement after retirement is beneficial to not feeling lonely across two birth cohorts in Taiwan. This investigation highlights the importance of social stressors occurring before retirement because these have an effect on retirees’ feelings of loneliness beyond individual socioeconomic status.

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No relevant research has explored factors associated with the loneliness of retirees across generations in non-Western societies.

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Retirees who experienced work-family conflict before retirement were more likely to be in the group of remaining lonely after retirement.

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Social contact is a protective factor from being in the groups of becoming and remining lonely for borth cohorts.

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Work-related characteristics before retirement were significantly related to changes in loneliness among pre-Boomers only.

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The findings are timely because older people are dramatically increasing and becoming burdened with psychological problems.

Factors associated with community commitment among older adults: a stratified analysis of community group leaders and members

Background

Community commitment through group activities in the community is associated with improved health outcomes in older adults and has a ripple effect on community development. However, factors associated with community commitment through group activities in the community have not been examined. The purpose of this study was to examine individual factors and group-related factors in association with community commitment among older adult leaders and members of community groups in Japan.

Methods

We mailed self-administered questionnaires to all older adults participating in a community group (N = 1,898) in a ward of Yokohama city, the largest designated city in Japan. Variables included demographic characteristics, community commitment (Community Commitment Scale), individual factors, and group-related factors. We used logistic regression analysis to assess the association among study variables.

Results

A total of 1,154 people completed the questionnaire. The valid response rate was 48.8%. Respondents’ mean age was 78.3 years (standard deviation [SD] = 6.1, range 65–100 years), 79.6% were women, 55.9% were married, and 10.0% were employed. Factors associated with community commitment among group leaders were scores for self-efficacy in the health promotion scale (SF-15; mean ± SD: 48.5 ± 7.1), 5-item World Health Organization Well-Being Index (mean ± SD: 17.9 ± 4.3), and Lubben Social Network Scale, Japanese version (mean ± SD: 19.5 ± 6.9), as well as a perception of deriving pleasure from group participation (mean ± SD: 91.2 ± 9.4). Factors associated with community commitment among group members were economic status (Sufficient; n [%]: 749 [85.9]), frequency of going out (mean ± SD: 5.1 ± 1.8), years of group participation (mean ± SD: 6.2 ± 5.0), and perceptions of their role in the group (Yes; n [%]: 254 [30.4]) as well as the above factors for leaders. A supplementary qualitative analysis of participants’ free-text responses extracted seven categories: community support, resource mobilization, partnership action, asset management, participatory decision-making, linkages and networking, and community dissemination, related to perception of a role in the group.

Conclusion

Our results emphasize the importance of considering the different associations of community commitment through group activities in the community between group leaders and members, including the role of older adults in community groups, and suggest different approaches for group leaders and members.

The Role of Social Engagement in Older Adults' Health

The purpose of the current study was to explore the association between social engagement and the health status, cognition, and perceived well-being of older adults using data from the National Health and Aging Trends Study. Descriptive statistics, clustering, and regression modeling were performed to analyze the data. We used the regression model to identify statistically significant relationships between the representative variables and the extent to which participants participated in social activities. The most representative variable for each of the three clusters was selected and fitted to the regression model, which consists of (1) acute health problems and events, (2) cognitive and communication barriers, and (3) chronic conditions contributing to long-term health status. A regression model found that two factors-cognitive and communication barriers and chronic conditions contributing to long-term health status-were statistically significant in determining social engagement in older adults. Health care providers should consider various factors in planning and implementing social programs that can positively engage older adults. [Research in Gerontological Nursing, xx(x), xx-xx.].

The Effect of Adult Children's Education Attainment on Their Parents' Cognitive Health: An Intergenerational Support Perspective

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between adult children's education attainment and their parents' cognitive health, and to further explore the mechanism of intergenerational support. Based on empirical analysis of data from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey, our study finds a positive association between children's educational attainment and parents' cognitive health. This correlation is provided for by emotional communication of informal caregiving, financial support, and healthy behaviors shaped in the parents by adult children. The strength of the effect varied by the adult child's gender. While sons' education attainment significantly improves parental cognitive parameters through informal caregiving, financial support, and development of healthy behaviors, the effect of daughters' education derives from financial support and healthy behaviors, not being related to informal caregiving. The study enriches the evidence on the mobility of children's human capital toward their parents and provides practical insights for advancing children's participation in family caregiving.

Rethinking Social Relationships in Adulthood: The Differential Investment of Resources Model

Empirical evidence about the development of social relationships across adulthood into late life continues to accumulate, but theoretical development has lagged behind. The Differential Investment of Resources (DIRe) model integrates these empirical advances. The model defines the investment of time and energy into social ties varying in terms of emotional closeness and kinship as the core mechanism explaining the formation and maintenance of social networks. Individual characteristics, acting as capacities, motivations, and skills, determine the amount, direction, and efficacy of the investment. The context (e.g., the living situation) affects the social opportunity structure, the amount of time and energy available, and individual characteristics. Finally, the model describes two feedback loops: (a) social capital affecting the individual’s living situation and (b) different types of ties impacting individual characteristics via social exchanges, social influences, and social evaluations. The proposed model will provide a theoretical basis for future research and hypothesis testing.

Social Engagement and Sleep Quality among Older Adults in Rural China: Is There a Sex Difference?

OBJECTIVES

Sleep quality plays a crucial role in maintaining the health of older people and has become a major public health concern throughout the world. Social engagement, as a core component of "Active Ageing", is one of the key determinants of health outcomes of older adults. This study estimated the relationship between social engagement and sleep quality among older adults living in rural China, and to determine whether there is a sex difference in these associations.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional design. Multilevel, multiple linear regression models were used to examine the independent associations between each type of social engagement and sleep quality. All standard errors were clustered at the community level.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Data were from 3243 adults age 60 years or older from rural areas in China.

METHODS

Sleep quality was measured by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Social engagement was measured by 3 types of social groups' activity in this study, including participation in hobby groups, community-related organization, and sports groups.

RESULTS

Participating in hobby groups, community-related organization, and sports groups with high frequency are all associated with better sleep quality. In addition, the positive relation between participating in community-related organization and sleep quality is stronger for older male than female adults, and the positive association between participating in hobby groups/sports groups is stronger for older female than male adults.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Older adults with high-frequency of social engagement may have better sleep quality. This study offers new insight for the sleep quality from the perspective of social engagement among older people, implies that encouraging targeted social engagement in older people with different sex may be effective in promoting sleep quality in rural China.

Social contact, social support, and cognitive health in a population-based study of middle-aged and older men and women in rural South Africa

BACKGROUND

Several theories seek to explain how social connections and cognitive function are interconnected in older age. These include that social interaction protects against cognitive decline, that cognitive decline leads to shedding of social connections and that cognitive decline leads to increased instrumental support. We investigated how patterns of social contact, social support and cognitive health in rural South Africa fit with these three theories.

METHOD

We used data from the baseline of "Health and Aging in Africa: a Longitudinal Study of an INDEPTH community in South Africa" (HAALSI), a population-based study of 5059 individuals aged ≥ 40 years. We evaluated how a range of egocentric social connectedness measures varied by respondents' cognitive function.

RESULTS

We found that respondents with lower cognitive function had smaller, denser social networks that were more local and more kin-based than their peers. Lower cognitive function was associated with receipt of less social support generally, but this difference was stronger for emotional and informational support than for financial and physical support. Impairment was associated with greater differences among those aged 40-59 and those with any (versus no) educational attainment.

CONCLUSIONS

The patterns we found suggest that cognitively impaired older adults in this setting rely on their core social networks for support, and that theories relating to social connectedness and cognitive function developed in higher-income and higher-education settings may also apply in lower-resource settings elsewhere.