Fear of crime among the aged

Fear of Crime Out West: Determinants of Fear of Property and Violent Crime in Five States

Fear of crime research has been around for decades, and many studies of its extent, nature, and consequences have been published. In this study, we build upon existing research to examine the effects of vulnerability, disorder/incivilities, social cohesion, prior victimization, and perceptions of police upon fear of property crime and fear of violent crime. Using data from a random mail survey of residents from five different states, the current study offers a view of the determinants of fear of crime within an often overlooked population-residents of the Western United States. Results support leading theories of fear of crime, finding that women, perceptions of disorder/incivilities, perceptions of social cohesion, prior victimization, and assessments of police quality of service each influence fear of crime. Findings also suggest that the determinants of fear of crime vary somewhat according to crime type.

Perceived neighbourhood safety and volunteerism among older adults

Previous research shows the benefits of volunteerism to individuals and communities. The purpose of this study was to determine whether lower perceived neighbourhood safety is associated with reduced volunteerism and whether this association differs by sex. Data from the 2008 Health and Retirement Study in the United States of America were used (N = 13,009 adults 60 years and older). Multivariate logistic regression models were estimated to assess the association between perceived neighbourhood safety and volunteerism while controlling for potential confounders. Perceived neighbourhood safety was associated with volunteering. The odds of volunteering were higher for those rating their perceived neighbourhood safety as excellent compared with those rating their perceived neighbourhood safety as fair/poor. Those rating their perceived neighbourhood safety as very good also had greater odds of volunteering than those rating their perceived neighbourhood safety as fair/poor. Results differed somewhat by gender. Men who perceived their neighbourhood safety as excellent had increased odds of volunteering. The association of neighbourhood safety with volunteerism was significant for women rating their perceived neighbourhood safety as excellent or very good. Among men, being married was associated with increased odds of volunteering; being completely or partly retired was associated with increased odds of volunteering among women. Initiatives aimed at improving older adults’ perceptions of safety would help improve volunteerism, which is beneficial to both older adults and communities.

Fear of Crime in Old Age: A Sample Case of Resilience?

Objectives

Research on fear of crime (FOC) in adulthood has often shown a positive age relation, whereas the risk of criminal victimization decreases with age. The present study distinguishes three dimensions of FOC (affective, cognitive, and behavioral component) and attempts to investigate possible explanations for differential age correlations by referring to processes of adaptation and resilience. In particular, the functionality of FOC and its impact on the individual's well-being is assumed to be influenced by the individual's capacity to accommodate to adverse circumstances.

Method

These hypotheses are investigated within a cross-sectional assessment using questionnaire data (1,792 participants between 18 and 98 years of age).

Results

As predicted, age was a strong predictor of the behavioral but not affective and cognitive component of FOC. In particular, the results support a twofold adaptive function of accommodation: Accommodation facilitates cautious behavior with increasing age and, at the same time, dampens the impact of FOC on depressivity.

Discussion

The adaptive role of cautious behavior in advanced age and accommodation is discussed within a developmental regulation framework.

How older people became less afraid of crime-An age-period-cohort analysis using repeated cross-sectional survey data

One of the most robust predictors of fear of crime is age: Older people tend to be more fearful. Yet, many questions beyond the basic cross-sectional relationship remain unexplored. We investigate cohort effects on fear of crime, applying graphical analyses and a version of the hierarchical age-period-cohort (HAPC) analysis to eight waves of the German subset of the European Social Survey. We hypothesize that health improvements and the educational expansion in postwar Germany led to a decreasing cohort trend, and that children exposed to traumatic experiences and adverse living conditions during and after World War II report higher levels of perceived insecurity throughout the life course. We argue that cross-sectional age differences are, in fact, to a large extent cohort effects, mediated by improved self-rated health and increasing education. The analyses also unveil a recent period effect after 2014. These novel findings add considerably to the understanding of the temporal dynamics of fear of crime.

Does it look safe? An eye tracking study into the visual aspects of fear of crime

Studies of fear of crime often focus on demographic and social factors, but these can be difficult to change. Studies of visual aspects have suggested that features reflecting incivilities, such as litter, graffiti, and vandalism increase fear of crime, but methods often rely on participants actively mentioning such aspects, and more subtle, less conscious aspects may be overlooked. To address these concerns, this study examined people’s eye movements while they judged scenes for safety. In total, 40 current and former university students were asked to rate images of day-time and night-time scenes of Lincoln, UK (where they studied) and Egham, UK (unfamiliar location) for safety, maintenance, and familiarity while their eye movements were recorded. Another 25 observers not from Lincoln or Egham rated the same images in an Internet survey. Ratings showed a strong association between safety and maintenance and lower safety ratings for night-time scenes for both groups, in agreement with earlier findings. Eye movements of the Lincoln participants showed increased dwell times on buildings, houses, and vehicles during safety judgements and increased dwell times on streets, pavements, and markers of incivilities for maintenance. Results confirm that maintenance plays an important role in perceptions of safety, but eye movements suggest that observers also look for indicators of current or recent presence of people.

Residence-Based Fear of Crime: A Routine Activities Approach

Most fear-of-crime research uses resident's neighborhood as a key reference location to measure fear, yet the location effects of one's own dwelling unit on crime-specific fear has not been explicitly studied theoretically in the literature. Drawing upon routine activities theory, this study undertakes an investigation into the levels and determinants of residence-based fear of crime across three racial/ethnic groups-Whites, African Americans, and non-White Hispanics. Data used in the analyses were collected from a random-sample telephone survey of 1,239 respondents in Houston, Texas. The results derived from factor analyses revealed that residents do distinguish between fear in the neighborhood and fear at home. Proximity to motivated offenders measured by perception of crime was found to be the most salient predictor of fear, followed by the measures of target vulnerability and capable guardianship. In addition, residence-based fear varies significantly across racial/ethnic groups. The significance of these findings and the policy implications are highlighted.

Fear of Cybercrime in Europe: Examining the Effects of Victimization and Vulnerabilities

This study utilizes aspects of Ferraro's risk interpretation model in order to examine how social and physical vulnerabilities and victimization experiences relate to fear of online crime using Eurobarometer survey data. The results of the regression analyses show that individuals with prior cybercrime victimization experiences, women, and individuals with lower social status and lower confidence in their ability to use the Internet report higher levels of fear. Low social status and low confidence was found to have a significant interaction effect with prior victimization experiences in relation to fear of cybercrime. Prior victimization experiences with online fraud appear to increase fear of cybercrime in low social status individuals more than other groups. Experiences with hacked accounts or cyberattacks also intensifies the fear of those with low confidence more than those with a higher amount of confidence. Overall, the results of this study indicate that social and physical vulnerabilities as well as victimization have direct and indirect effects on fear of cybercrime, just as with traditional place-based crimes.

Fear of Crime among Individuals with Physical Limitations

Multivariate logistic regression models are estimated using survey data to test the relationship between health status and fear of crime. More specifically, this article examines the relationship between fear of crime and perception of health, versus an actual measure of health (i.e., having a physical disability or limitation). Along with sex and age, health status is considered a prominent indicator of personal vulnerability to crime. Nevertheless, support for health status as an indicator of fear of crime is contradictory, because it is the perception of health that has been measured and not actual illness or disability. Although much is known about the prevalence of fear of crime among populations who perceive themselves to be at a greater physical disadvantage, very little is known about the perceptions of individuals with physical disabilities, those who suffer from actual measurable physical limitations (such as the loss of one or more limbs or senses), as opposed to those who perceive themselves to be limited in the ability to protect themselves. Results indicate that impairment of ability has implications for fear of crime beyond the assessment of one's general health.

The Gender Gap in Fear of Crime, 1973-1994: A Methodological Approach

The literature on fear of crime consistently finds much higher levels of reported fear among women than among men (Baumer, 1978; Ferraro, 1996; Warr, 1984). Thus we know which segment of the population is most fearful, and we know some of the correlates associated with that fear, but there has been little research that has examined social change in respondents' fear of crime, particularly in regard to the question of whether the gender gap in fear of crime has changed over time. In the present article, using data from the General Social Survey from 1973 to 1994 and data from the Uniform Crime Reports, five methods of studying social change are applied in examining this question: proximate decomposition, trend analysis, pooled time-series analysis, a changing parameter model, and a hierarchical linear regression model. These methods will be used to answer three questions. First, did fear of crime increase from 1973 to 1994, and is that change attributable to individual attitude change or to population turnover? Second, has the gender gap in reported fear of crime narrowed or widened over time? Third, can relevant variables be identified, such as the nation's violent crime rate, to account for changes in the gender gap?

Findings from these analyses indicate that, overall, a gradual rise in levels of reported fear of crime has occurred, but this masks considerable variation, including periods of declining fear of crime. Although women are much more likely to fear crime, the gender gap has narrowed as men's reported fear of crime has gradually increased over time while women's has remained stable (albeit at a high level). Although no variables are found to explain the gender gap in fear of crime, hierarchical linear models reveal that the nation's violent crime rate is associated with men's rising fear of crime over time.

Lack of Satisfaction in Post-Retirement Years

To discover potential sources of difficulty associated with retirement and aging, a questionnaire was devised and administered to a sample of 32 retirees ( M age of 691 yr.) who had worked full time for at least ten years and were now working less than fifteen hours per week. Relationships between lack of satisfaction with post-retirement life and about half of various suggested sources of difficulty pertaining to retirement and aging were established by chi squared.

Trends in Elderly Criminal Victimization from 1973 to 1984

Trends in elderly victimization are analyzed for the years 1973-1984. Criminal victimization rates are declining for all types of crime, including those committed against the elderly. The elderly experienced greater declines over time than the general population. Crimes involving a combination of personal contact and economic motivation declined faster than other crimes committed against the elderly. It is possible that the observed declines may be attributable more to changes in the demographic structure of the American population than to public policy.

Relocation Desires and Outcomes among the Elderly

The factors that affect relocation desires and outcomes among the elderly are analyzed using longitudinal data from a national survey of the low-income aged (N = 3402). The analysis indicates that only a small proportion of respondents desired to move in 1973 and even fewer were able to fulfill their residential preferences within the following year. The desire to move and actual relocation are examined in relation to a number of personal and environmental factors. Of particular interest is the finding that among those who relocated, individuals who desired to move in the 1973 interview were more satisfied with their new dwelling than those who did not express such a desire in the previous year.

Sex Differences in Fear of Crime among Older People

This study tests the hypothesis that women are more fearful of crime than are men among a sample of persons aged 55 and over. Although this hypothesis has been supported by many previous studies of both elderly and general populations, the meaning and explanation of this relationship have not been successfully ascertained. Fear of crime is measured here by thirteen separate items. The results show that women are not more fearful of crime in general, but rather express greater apprehension of walking alone in their neighborhoods at night. This may be related to women's lower self-assessed abilities to protect themselves against assault. Sex differences on all other dimensions of fear of crime are negligible.

Criminal Victimization and Fear of Crime

The purpose of this research is twofold: to examine the relationship between criminal victimization and age-related characteristics, and to investigate the extent and reasons for high rates of fear of crime among the elderly. The data suggest a linear relationship between age and victimization with the elderly being victimized least and the age category of 18-24 having the highest victimization rates. The evidence supports conclusions that the elderly have the highest fear of crime and "'community protectiveness" is used as an important explanation for differences between rural and urban elderly fear of crime. A multivariate approach was used to determine the impact of criminal victimization and fear of crime upon the elderly.

Fear of crime and older people in low- and middle-income countries

This paper analyses data from the World Health Organization's Study on Global AGEing and Adult Health (SAGE) on the prevalence of reported fear of crime at home and on the street among older people in China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia and South Africa. SAGE provides nationally representative data for 35,125 people aged 50 and over. These reveal large national variations in reported crime fear: for example, 65 per cent of older South Africans felt unsafe on the street, compared to only 9 per cent of older Ghanaians. The paper examines factors potentially associated with crime fear, including age, socio-economic status and frailty, and relates these to different theoretical models of crime fear. Female sex and frailty are associated with higher rates of crime fear across the study countries. Other associations are less consistent, e.g. urban residence is associated with higher levels of fear in some countries and lower levels in others. The paper considers the potential effects of crime fear on mobility beyond the home, health status and quality of life. A strong association is found for mobility, but effects on health and quality of life are harder to interpret as the direction of causality can be two-way. Overall, the paper demonstrates the potential impact of crime fear on older people's wellbeing and highlights a need for further, more contextualised research.

Perceptions of Crime and Fear of Victimisation Among Elderly People

Most of the research into fear of crime among the elderly has been conducted in the United States of America particularly during the past ten years. This paper begins by summarising the major findings which have emerged from this work. Attention is then turned to similar studies which have recently been undertaken in Britain. The findings from a small sample survey of elderly residents in a town in the south of England are then reported. In discussing the data obtained from eighty interviews fear of crime is considered in relation to perceptions of crime, the amount of social contact residents have with relatives, friends and neighbours and the nature and quality of the immediate residential environment.

Predictors of fear of crime in older adults

Very little is known about factors that predict fear of crime in older adults. Indeed, the topic itself remains a source of controversy, with early studies indicating higher levels of crime fear with age, and new, more methodologically rigorous studies demonstrating the opposite trend. The present exploratory investigation included 106 older adults and assessed the relationship between demographic variables, interpersonal violence, psychopathology, and fear of crime. In addition, this study built on previous research in that specific feared outcomes (e.g., hospitalization) were also considered. Initial findings indicate that being female, non-Caucasian, having depressive symptoms, and reporting social isolation are predictive of general fear of crime ratings. Different predictor sets were noted for fear of crime against person and fear of crime against property. Reported perceptions of negative crime outcomes were associated with being female, non-Caucasian, and having low income.

Gerontological perspectives on crime and nuisance: the elderly critically evaluate housing designs in the British city

This paper investigates the perceptions of the elderly in relation to crime and nuisance and the fear of crime associated with stereotypical British housing designs. Demographically, this diverse though highly urbanized group continues to grow; group members' observations, therefore, have increasing social relevance and political importance and are crucial for assessing and informing both current policy and the evolution of future policy initiatives. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) has become popular once again in America, Australia, Canada, South Africa, as well as in Europe and Britain. A crucial dimension to this theory concerns the perception of "territoriality," "surveillance," and "image" within the design of the built environment derived from Newman's "Defensible Space" concepts (1973). This paper presents and discusses the ways in which the elderly associate crime and nuisance with a range of traditional housing designs. The findings strongly reinforce Newman's theory. The paper concludes that the design and, perhaps more importantly, the management of residential housing influence the perceived levels of crime, nuisance, and fear of crime, and the "defensible" qualities of each specific design. Such perceptions will arguably affect elderly people's ability to maintain their privacy, dignity, and autonomy, their physical and psychological well-being, and their social inclusion. Policy implications for housing the elderly safely within the community are reviewed.

Furcht vor Kriminalität im Alter

Zusammenfassung. Diskutiert wird das in der kriminologischen Literatur vielfach replizierte sogenannte “Viktimisierungs-Furcht-Paradoxon”, demzufolge Ältere mehr Furcht vor Kriminalität als jüngere Personen haben, obwohl sie statistisch das geringste Risiko krimineller Viktimisierung tragen. Jüngere Studien zeigen jedoch, daß sich dieses Paradox auflösen läßt, wenn Kriminalitätsfurcht differenziert (kognitiv, affektiv, behavioral) erfaßt wird. Ältere Menschen fürchten sich nicht häufiger als jüngere und halten eine Viktimisierung auch nicht für wahrscheinlicher, verhalten sich jedoch deutlich vorsichtiger als Jüngere. Eine eigene Studie mit N = 737 Personen zwischen 10 und 98 Jahren repliziert diesen Befund und belegt darüber hinaus, daß diese Vorsicht adaptiv ist. Die Tendenz zu akkommodativen Bewältigungsressourcen sagt nicht nur Vorsichtsverhalten im Alter vorher, sondern trägt überdies dazu bei, mögliche negative Folgen dieses Verhaltens für das allgemeine Wohlbefinden abzumildern. Offene Forschungsfragen für mögliche Anschlußuntersuchungen werden diskutiert.

The effects of health, environmental, and socio-psychological variables on fear of crime and its consequences among urban black elderly individuals

Despite extensive research on fear of crime among elder members of the population, little attention has been paid to the fear of crime among Black urban elderly individuals. Using a sample of 372 low income urban Black persons aged sixty-two and over the causes and consequences of such fear were investigated. Fear of crime reduces subjective well-being of these older adults and limits their mobility. Age, gender, education, marital status, loneliness, self-reported health status, previous victimization experience, media exposure, trust of neighbors, length of residence, and type of housing were tested to identify significant predictors of fear of crime. Some of these variables had a diverse impact on fear of crime at home versus outside of the home. For example, while gender was the strongest predictor of fear of crime outside the home, it was not significantly associated with fear inside the home. Surprisingly, self-reported health status was not related to fear of crime among this sample of urban Black elderly individuals.

Fear of crime and the likelihood of victimization: a bi-ethnic comparison

Fear of crime and the likelihood of future victimization for Hispanics and Blacks in the United States was examined. The sample size was 2,235 (1,696 Black and 539 Hispanic respondents). Fear of crime and the likelihood of victimization were perceived as serious social problems by both Hispanics and Blacks, but Hispanics and women reported higher levels of fear of crime and felt more likely to be victimized than Blacks and men did.

The elderly's fear of crime. A critical examination of the research

Research on fear of crime reveals that the pervasiveness and intensity of fear in the United States is substantially higher among the elderly than younger persons. The relationship between age and fear of crime is seemingly paradoxical because the elderly tend to be least often victimized. This article critically assesses much of the research on fear of crime among the elderly. Our analysis shows that (1) several of the standard fear of crime measures are poorly operationalized and (2) estimates of the extent of fear of crime are highly dependent on the type and quality of operationalization. We conclude that the amount of fear experienced in the everyday lives of most older persons has been overstated. Implications for policy and suggestions for further research are offered.

Fear of crime among elderly Jews in Boston and London

This article deals with the impact of fear of crime on the daily behavior of elderly Jews in two racially mixed, deteriorating neighborhoods, one in Boston and the other in London. Although people in both places expressed their fears in a similar language, their behavior was different: the Boston elderly retreated behind locked doors, while the London elderly continued their daily routine almost uninterrupted. Three factors are discussed: crime rate in each neighborhood, the different ecological pattern of both cities, and the impact of racial change. Above all, it seems, the different effect of fear of crime on behavior can be explained by the way the elderly regarded themselves vis-a-vis the community. The London Jews still felt themselves to be a part of their community while the Boston Jews felt alienated from it.

Significant others and fear of crime among the elderly

The authors examine demographic, environmental, behavioral, and social psychological factors that affect fear of crime among the elderly. Using a structural equation model, relevant variables are examined. Confirming earlier studies, elderly women are found to be more fearful than other groups. Further, social isolation, type of housing, length of residence, and area of the city are all related to fear of crime in a predicted direction. The fearful individual expressed low satisfaction with the job being done by the police in providing protection from crime. Social interaction with neighbors and friends reduces the fear of crime among the elderly. Surprisingly, the more they socialize with their relatives, the more fear they express.

Environmental satisfaction, sociability, and well-being among urban elderly

A review of the literature indicates that until recently little attention has been paid to the effects of the environment on well-being among the aged. This study analyzes data relevant to both the individual and his or her environment from a large (N = 2265) national sample of low- and middle-income elderly. A recursive causal model is presented; the results indicate that perceived health and housing satisfaction contribute the most to well-being among the elderly. In addition, for men and women home ownership was not found to affect well-being positively. For men who owned their own homes lower scores on well-being were reported. The findings also indicate that while the quantity of neighbor interaction benefits the well-being of men, women benefit more from the positive sentiments of sociability in the neighborhood. This study emphasizes the importance of environmental satisfaction and neighborhood sociability as key determinants of well-being in later life.

The situational relationship between age and the fear of crime

It is commonly accepted that there is a positive relationship between age and the fear of crime, although there is some indication that this may not hold under all conditions. Most studies concerning fear of crime have been based upon questions involving fear of walking alone within one's neighborhood. This study examined fear of crime both in the relative danger of walking in the neighborhood and in the safety of one's home. Age was found to be positively associated with fear of crime in the former situation, but slightly negatively associated in the latter. It was suggested that the aged may only be more fearful of crime in particularly dangerous situations, and that there is a need for fear of crime measures with greater content validity.

Urban structure and household victimization of the elderly

This paper examines the relationships of several urban structural characteristics with the rate of household victimization of the elderly in twenty-six U.S. central cities. We find that inter-city variation in two types of household victimization (household burglary and larcency) is highly related to two factors: 1) population density, and 2) socioeconomic conditions. The implications of these findings for further research are discussed.

Safety on the streets: cohort changes in fear

Using data from two national surveys, cohort changes in fear for one's safety on the streets are examined over an eleven year period. Fear of walking alone at night has increased among all cohorts, but the greatest increases have taken place among the older cohorts. These results are consistent with interpretations that stress characteristics of the aging process to account for the elderly's greater fear of vulnerability to criminal victimization.