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Müller J, Boubaker G, Müller N, Uldry AC, Braga-Lagache S, Heller M, Hemphill A. Investigating Antiprotozoal Chemotherapies with Novel Proteomic Tools-Chances and Limitations: A Critical Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6903. [PMID: 39000012 PMCID: PMC11241152 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25136903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Identification of drug targets and biochemical investigations on mechanisms of action are major issues in modern drug development. The present article is a critical review of the classical "one drug"-"one target" paradigm. In fact, novel methods for target deconvolution and for investigation of resistant strains based on protein mass spectrometry have shown that multiple gene products and adaptation mechanisms are involved in the responses of pathogens to xenobiotics rather than one single gene or gene product. Resistance to drugs may be linked to differential expression of other proteins than those interacting with the drug in protein binding studies and result in complex cell physiological adaptation. Consequently, the unraveling of mechanisms of action needs approaches beyond proteomics. This review is focused on protozoan pathogens. The conclusions can, however, be extended to chemotherapies against other pathogens or cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ghalia Boubaker
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Christine Uldry
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sophie Braga-Lagache
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Heller
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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Hagen KD, Hart CJS, McInally SG, Dawson SC. Harnessing the power of new genetic tools to illuminate Giardia biology and pathogenesis. Genetics 2024; 227:iyae038. [PMID: 38626297 PMCID: PMC11151923 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyae038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Giardia is a prevalent single-celled microaerophilic intestinal parasite causing diarrheal disease and significantly impacting global health. Double diploid (essentially tetraploid) Giardia trophozoites have presented a formidable challenge to the development of molecular genetic tools to interrogate gene function. High sequence divergence and the high percentage of hypothetical proteins lacking homology to proteins in other eukaryotes have limited our understanding of Giardia protein function, slowing drug target validation and development. For more than 25 years, Giardia A and B assemblages have been readily amenable to transfection with plasmids or linear DNA templates. Here, we highlight the utility and power of genetic approaches developed to assess protein function in Giardia, with particular emphasis on the more recent clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats/Cas9-based methods for knockdowns and knockouts. Robust and reliable molecular genetic approaches are fundamental toward the interrogation of Giardia protein function and evaluation of druggable targets. New genetic approaches tailored for the double diploid Giardia are imperative for understanding Giardia's unique biology and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari D Hagen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Christopher J S Hart
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Shane G McInally
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | - Scott C Dawson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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3
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Asghari A, Mahdavi F, Yousefi A, Shamsi L, Badali R, Mohammadi MR, Irannejad H, Mohammadi-Ghalehbin B, Shahabi S, Asgari Q, Motazedian MH, Bastaminejad S. Development of New PCR Protocols to Detect Genetic Diversity in the Metronidazole Metabolism Genes in Susceptible and Refractory Clinical Samples of Giardia duodenalis. Acta Parasitol 2024; 69:1073-1077. [PMID: 38499920 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-024-00828-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Investigating the genetic variation in thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and nitroreductase (NR) genes in both treatment-resistant and -sensitive Giardia duodenalis isolates can provide valuable information in identifying potential markers of resistance to metronidazole. The rapid increase in metronidazole treatment failures suggests the presence of genetic resistance mechanisms. By analyzing these genes, researchers can gain insights into the efficacy of metronidazole against G. duodenalis and potentially develop alternative treatment strategies. In this regard, four G. duodenalis isolates (two clinically sensitive and two clinically resistant to metronidazole) were collected from various hospitals of Shiraz, southwestern Iran. METHODS Parasitological methods including sucrose flotation and microscopy were employed for the primary confirmation of G. duodenalis cysts in stool samples. Microscopy-positive samples were approved by SSU-PCR amplification of the parasite DNA. All four positive G. duodenalis specimens at SSU-PCR were afterward analyzed utilizing designed primers based on important metronidazole metabolism genes including TrxR, NR1, and NR2. RESULTS Unlike TrxR gene, the results of NR1 and NR2 genes showed that there are non-synonymous variations between sequences of treatment-sensitive and -resistant samples compared to reference sequences. Furthermore, the outcomes of molecular docking revealed that there is an interaction between the protein sequence and spatial shape of treatment-resistant samples and metronidazole in the position of serine amino acid based on the NR1 gene. CONCLUSION This issue can be one of the possible factors involved in the resistance of Giardia parasites to metronidazole. To reach more accurate results, a large sample size along with simulation and advanced molecular dynamics investigations are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Asghari
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Farzad Mahdavi
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Gilan, Iran
| | - Amirhosein Yousefi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Laya Shamsi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - Roya Badali
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Mohammad Reza Mohammadi
- Department of Bacteriology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamid Irannejad
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | | | - Saeed Shahabi
- Department of Biology and Control of Disease Vectors, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Qasem Asgari
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | | | - Saiyad Bastaminejad
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of ParaMedicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
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Su Q, Baker L, Emery S, Balan B, Ansell B, Tichkule S, Mueller I, Svärd SG, Jex A. Transcriptomic analysis of albendazole resistance in human diarrheal parasite Giardia duodenalis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY: DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2023; 22:9-19. [PMID: 37004489 PMCID: PMC10111952 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Benzimidazole-2-carbamates (BZ, e.g., albendazole; ALB), which bind β-tubulin to disrupt microtubule polymerization, are one of two primary compound classes used to treat giardiasis. In most parasitic nematodes and fungi, BZ-resistance is caused by β-tubulin mutations and its molecular mode of action (MOA) is well studied. In contrast, in Giardia duodenalis BZ MOA or resistance is less well understood, may involve target-specific and broader impacts including cellular damage and oxidative stress, and its underlying cause is not clearly determined. Previously, we identified acquisition of a single nucleotide polymorphism, E198K, in β-tubulin in ALB-resistant (ALB-R) G. duodenalis WB-1B relative to ALB-sensitive (ALB-S) parental controls. E198K is linked to BZ-resistance in fungi and its allelic frequency correlated with the magnitude of BZ-resistance in G. duodenalis WB-1B. Here, we undertook detailed transcriptomic comparisons of these ALB-S and ALB-R G. duodenalis WB-1B cultures. The primary transcriptional changes with ALB-R in G. duodenalis WB-1B indicated increased protein degradation and turnover, and up-regulation of tubulin, and related genes, associated with the adhesive disc and basal bodies. These findings are consistent with previous observations noting focused disintegration of the disc and associated structures in Giardia duodenalis upon ALB exposure. We also saw transcriptional changes with ALB-R in G. duodenalis WB-1B consistent with prior observations of a shift from glycolysis to arginine metabolism for ATP production and possible changes to aspects of the vesicular trafficking system that require further investigation. Finally, we saw mixed transcriptional changes associated with DNA repair and oxidative stress responses in the G. duodenalis WB-1B line. These changes may be indicative of a role for H2O2 degradation in ALB-R, as has been observed in other G. duodenalis cell cultures. However, they were below the transcriptional fold-change threshold (log2FC > 1) typically employed in transcriptomic analyses and appear to be contradicted in ALB-R G. duodenalis WB-1B by down-regulation of the NAD scavenging and conversion pathways required to support these stress pathways and up-regulation of many highly oxidation sensitive iron-sulphur (FeS) cluster based metabolic enzymes.
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Karpe AV, Beale DJ, Tran CD. Intelligent Biological Networks: Improving Anti-Microbial Resistance Resilience through Nutritional Interventions to Understand Protozoal Gut Infections. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1800. [PMID: 37512972 PMCID: PMC10383877 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11071800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric protozoan pathogenic infections significantly contribute to the global burden of gastrointestinal illnesses. Their occurrence is considerable within remote and indigenous communities and regions due to reduced access to clean water and adequate sanitation. The robustness of these pathogens leads to a requirement of harsh treatment methods, such as medicinal drugs or antibiotics. However, in addition to protozoal infection itself, these treatments impact the gut microbiome and create dysbiosis. This often leads to opportunistic pathogen invasion, anti-microbial resistance, or functional gastrointestinal disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Moreover, these impacts do not remain confined to the gut and are reflected across the gut-brain, gut-liver, and gut-lung axes, among others. Therefore, apart from medicinal treatment, nutritional supplementation is also a key aspect of providing recovery from this dysbiosis. Future proteins, prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, and food formulations offer a good solution to remedy this dysbiosis. Furthermore, nutritional supplementation also helps to build resilience against opportunistic pathogens and potential future infections and disorders that may arise due to the dysbiosis. Systems biology techniques have shown to be highly effective tools to understand the biochemistry of these processes. Systems biology techniques characterize the fundamental host-pathogen interaction biochemical pathways at various infection and recovery stages. This same mechanism also allows the impact of the abovementioned treatment methods of gut microbiome remediation to be tracked. This manuscript discusses system biology approaches, analytical techniques, and interaction and association networks, to understand (1) infection mechanisms and current global status; (2) cross-organ impacts of dysbiosis, particularly within the gut-liver and gut-lung axes; and (3) nutritional interventions. This study highlights the impact of anti-microbial resistance and multi-drug resistance from the perspective of protozoal infections. It also highlights the role of nutritional interventions to add resilience against the chronic problems caused by these phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avinash V Karpe
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Black Mountain Science and Innovation Park, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia
- Socio-Eternal Thinking for Unity (SETU), Melbourne, VIC 3805, Australia
| | - David J Beale
- Environment, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Cuong D Tran
- Health and Biosecurity, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Gate 13 Kintore Ave., Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
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Saghaug CS, Gamlem AL, Hauge KB, Vahokoski J, Klotz C, Aebischer T, Langeland N, Hanevik K. Genetic diversity in the metronidazole metabolism genes nitroreductases and pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductases in susceptible and refractory clinical samples of Giardia lamblia. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 21:51-60. [PMID: 36682328 PMCID: PMC9871439 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of metronidazole against the tetraploid intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia is dependent on its activation/inactivation within the cytoplasm. There are several activating enzymes, including pyruvate ferredoxin reductase (PFOR) and nitroreductase (NR) 1 which metabolize metronidazole into toxic forms, while NR2 on the other hand inactivates it. Metronidazole treatment failures have been increasing rapidly over the last decade, indicating genetic resistance mechanisms. Analyzing genetic variation in the PFOR and NR genes in susceptible and refractory Giardia isolates may help identify potential markers of resistance. Full length PFOR1, PFOR2, NR1 and NR2 genes from clinical culturable isolates and non-cultured clinical Giardia assemblage B samples were cloned, sequenced and single nucleotide variants (SNVs) were analyzed to assess genetic diversity and alleles. A similar ratio of amino acid changing SNVs per gene length was found for the NRs; 4.2% for NR1 and 6.4% for NR2, while the PFOR1 and PFOR2 genes had less variability with a ratio of 1.1% and 1.6%, respectively. One of the samples from a refractory case had a nonsense mutation which caused a truncated NR1 gene in one out of six alleles. Further, we found three NR2 alleles with frameshift mutations, possibly causing a truncated protein in two susceptible isolates. One of these isolates was homozygous for the affected NR2 allele. Three nsSNVs with potential for affecting protein function were found in the ferredoxin domain of the PFOR2 gene. The considerable variation and discovery of mutations possibly causing dysfunctional NR proteins in clinical Giardia assemblage B isolates, reveal a potential for genetic link to metronidazole susceptibility and resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Saghaug
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Astrid L Gamlem
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Kirsti B Hauge
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Juha Vahokoski
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Christian Klotz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Toni Aebischer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nina Langeland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
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Application of Proteomics to the Study of the Therapeutics and Pathogenicity of Giardia duodenalis. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12112744. [DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12112744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis remains a neglected tropical disease. A key feature of the sustained transmission of Giardia is the ability to form environmentally resistant cysts. For the last 38 years, proteomics has been utilised to study various aspects of the parasite across different life cycle stages. Thirty-one articles have been published in PubMed from 2012 to 2022 related to the proteomics of G. duodenalis. Currently, mass spectrometry with LC-MS/MS and MALDI-TOF/TOF has been commonly utilised in proteomic analyses of Giardia, which enables researchers to determine potential candidates for diagnostic biomarkers as well as vaccine and drug targets, in addition to allowing them to investigate the virulence of giardiasis, the pathogenicity mechanisms of G. duodenalis, and the post-translational modifications of Giardia proteins throughout encystation. Over the last decade, valuable information from proteomics analyses of G. duodenalis has been discovered in terms of the pathogenesis and virulence of Giardia, which may provide guidance for the development of better means with which to prevent and reduce the impacts of giardiasis. Nonetheless, there is room for improving proteomics analyses of G. duodenalis, since genomic sequences for additional assemblages of Giardia have uncovered previously unknown proteins associated with the Giardia proteome. Therefore, this paper aims to review the applications of proteomics for the characterisation of G. duodenalis pathogenicity and the discovery of novel vaccine as well as drug targets, in addition to proposing some general directions for future Giardia proteomic research.
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Comprehensive characterization of Cysteine-rich protein-coding genes of Giardia lamblia and their role during antigenic variation. Genomics 2022; 114:110462. [PMID: 35998788 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2022.110462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Giardia lamblia encodes several families of cysteine-rich proteins, including the Variant-specific Surface Proteins (VSPs) involved in the process of antigenic variation. Their characteristics, definition and relationships are still controversial. An exhaustive analysis of the Cys-rich families including organization, features, evolution and levels of expression was performed, by combining pattern searches and predictions with massive sequencing techniques. Thus a new classification for Cys-rich proteins, genes and pseudogenes that better describes their involvement in Giardia's biology is presented. Moreover, three novel characteristics exclusive to the VSP genes, comprising an Initiator element/Kozak-like sequence, an extended polyadenylation signal and a unique pattern of mutually exclusive transcript accumulation is presented as well as the finding that High Cysteine Membrane Proteins, upregulated under stress, may protect the parasite during VSP switching. These results allow better interpretation of previous reports providing the basis for further studies of the biology of this early-branching eukaryote.
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Oliveira RVF, de Souza W, Vögerl K, Bracher F, Benchimol M, Gadelha APR. In vitro effects of the 4-[(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)methyl]-N-hydroxybenzamide on Giardia intestinalis trophozoites. Acta Trop 2022; 232:106484. [PMID: 35483428 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Giardiasis is an intestinal disease caused by the parasite protozoan Giardia intestinalis. For more than five decades, the treatment of this disease has been based on compounds such as nitroimidazoles and benzimidazoles. The parasite's adverse effects and therapeutic failure are largely recognized. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new forms of chemotherapy treatment against giardiasis. Lysine deacetylases (KDACs), which remove an acetyl group from lysine residues in histone and non-histone proteins as tubulin, are found in the Giardia genome and can become an interesting option for giardiasis treatment. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of 4-[(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)methyl]-N-hydroxybenzamide, a new class I/II KDAC inhibitor, on G. intestinalis growth, cytoskeleton, and ultrastructure organization. This compound decreased parasite proliferation and viability and displayed an IC50 value of 179 nM. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of protrusions on the cell surface after treatment. In addition, the vacuoles containing concentric membranous lamella and glycogen granules were observed in treated trophozoites. The cell membrane appeared deformed just above these vacuoles. Alterations on the microtubular cytoskeleton of the parasite were not observed after drug exposure. The number of diving cells with incomplete cytokinesis increased after treatment, indicating that the compound can interfere in the late steps of cell division. Our results indicate that 4-[(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)methyl]-N-hydroxybenzamide should be explored to develop new therapeutic compounds for treating giardiasis.
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10
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Krakovka S, Ribacke U, Miyamoto Y, Eckmann L, Svärd S. Characterization of Metronidazole-Resistant Giardia intestinalis Lines by Comparative Transcriptomics and Proteomics. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:834008. [PMID: 35222342 PMCID: PMC8866875 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.834008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metronidazole (MTZ) is a clinically important antimicrobial agent that is active against both bacterial and protozoan organisms. MTZ has been used extensively for more than 60 years and until now resistance has been rare. However, a recent and dramatic increase in the number of MTZ resistant bacteria and protozoa is of great concern since there are few alternative drugs with a similarly broad activity spectrum. To identify key factors and mechanisms underlying MTZ resistance, we utilized the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis, which is commonly treated with MTZ. We characterized two in vitro selected, metronidazole resistant parasite lines, as well as one revertant, by analyzing fitness aspects associated with increased drug resistance and transcriptomes and proteomes. We also conducted a meta-analysis using already existing data from additional resistant G. intestinalis isolates. The combined data suggest that in vitro generated MTZ resistance has a substantial fitness cost to the parasite, which may partly explain why resistance is not widespread despite decades of heavy use. Mechanistically, MTZ resistance in Giardia is multifactorial and associated with complex changes, yet a core set of pathways involving oxidoreductases, oxidative stress responses and DNA repair proteins, is central to MTZ resistance in both bacteria and protozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Krakovka
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center (BMC), Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulf Ribacke
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yukiko Miyamoto
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Lars Eckmann
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Staffan Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Biomedical Center (BMC), Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,SciLifeLab, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Huang PJ, Huang CY, Li YX, Liu YC, Chu LJ, Yeh YM, Cheng WH, Chen RM, Lee CC, Chen LC, Lin HC, Chiu SF, Lin WN, Lyu PC, Tang P, Huang KY. Dissecting the Transcriptomes of Multiple Metronidazole-Resistant and Sensitive Trichomonas vaginalis Strains Identified Distinct Genes and Pathways Associated with Drug Resistance and Cell Death. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9121817. [PMID: 34944632 PMCID: PMC8698965 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9121817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichomonas vaginalis is the causative agent of trichomoniasis, the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection worldwide. Metronidazole (MTZ) is the mainstay of anti-trichomonal chemotherapy; however, drug resistance has become an increasingly worrying issue. Additionally, the molecular events of MTZ-induced cell death in T. vaginalis remain elusive. To gain insight into the differential expression of genes related to MTZ resistance and cell death, we conducted RNA-sequencing of three paired MTZ-resistant (MTZ-R) and MTZ-sensitive (MTZ-S) T. vaginalis strains treated with or without MTZ. Comparative transcriptomes analysis identified that several putative drug-resistant genes were exclusively upregulated in different MTZ-R strains, such as ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and multidrug resistance pumps. Additionally, several shared upregulated genes among all the MTZ-R transcriptomes were not previously identified in T. vaginalis, such as 5′-nucleotidase surE and Na+-driven multidrug efflux pump, which are a potential stress response protein and a multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE)-like protein, respectively. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that purine and pyrimidine metabolisms were suppressed in MTZ-S parasites upon drug treatment, whereas the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, proteasome, and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis were strikingly activated, highlighting the novel pathways responsible for drug-induced stress. Our work presents the most detailed analysis of the transcriptional changes and the regulatory networks associated with MTZ resistance and MTZ-induced signaling, providing insights into MTZ resistance and cell death mechanisms in trichomonads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Jung Huang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan;
- Genomic Medicine Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-M.Y.); (C.-C.L.)
| | - Ching-Yun Huang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan; (C.-Y.H.); (S.-F.C.)
- Host-Parasite Interactions Laboratory, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Xuan Li
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-X.L.); (L.-J.C.); (P.T.)
| | - Yi-Chung Liu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan; (Y.-C.L.); (P.-C.L.)
| | - Lichieh-Julie Chu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-X.L.); (L.-J.C.); (P.T.)
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Ming Yeh
- Genomic Medicine Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-M.Y.); (C.-C.L.)
| | - Wei-Hung Cheng
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung City 824, Taiwan;
| | - Ruei-Ming Chen
- Division of Clinical Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan; (R.-M.C.); (H.-C.L.)
| | - Chi-Ching Lee
- Genomic Medicine Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-M.Y.); (C.-C.L.)
- Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan
| | - Lih-Chyang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 252, Taiwan;
| | - Hsin-Chung Lin
- Division of Clinical Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan; (R.-M.C.); (H.-C.L.)
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Fang Chiu
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan; (C.-Y.H.); (S.-F.C.)
- Host-Parasite Interactions Laboratory, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
- Department of Inspection, Taipei City Hospital, Renai Branch, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ning Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242, Taiwan;
| | - Ping-Chiang Lyu
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Structural Biology, Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan; (Y.-C.L.); (P.-C.L.)
| | - Petrus Tang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City 333, Taiwan; (Y.-X.L.); (L.-J.C.); (P.T.)
| | - Kuo-Yang Huang
- Host-Parasite Interactions Laboratory, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City 114, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-2-87923100 (ext. 18564)
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Ángeles-Arvizu A, Enriquez-Flores S, Jiménez-Gutiérrez A, Pérez-Rangel A, Luna-Arias JP, Castillo-Romero A, Hernández JM, León-Avila G. MDR1 protein (ABC-C1) Over Expression in Giardia Intestinalis Incubated with Albendazole and Nitazoxanide. Acta Parasitol 2021; 66:1158-1166. [PMID: 33840056 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-021-00385-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Giardia intestinalis is a worldwide parasite. Drugs used for the treatment of giardiasis are metronidazole, albendazole and nitazoxanide. The development of drug resistance is an obstacle to the effective treatment. Resistance mechanisms in some parasites involve the participation of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily. PURPOSE To find if the ATP-binding cassette genes are overexpressed in trophozoites treated with albendazole or nitazoxanide. METHODS A search for ATP-binding cassette genes in Giardia sequence database (GiardiaDB) was done and six genes were selected. Trophozoites treated with albendazole or nitazoxanide and the expression of these six ABC genes was quantitated by real-time RT-PCR. The ABC-C1 gene was selected, and a fragment cloned. The ABC-C1 protein was expressed, and polyclonal antibodies were elicited in mice to detect the protein in treated trophozoites, finally a docking analysis was performed for ABC-C1 and tizoxanide interaction. RESULTS Bioinformatics analysis showed that the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) topology is present in the six proteins. The qRT-PCR revealed that the ABC-C1 gene was overexpressed in cells incubated with nitazoxanide or albendazole. Confocal analysis showed that ABC-C1 protein levels increased in trophozoites with both treatments but was higher with nitazoxanide. The mark was detected heavily in the periphery of the cells. Using a docking analysis, it was found that the nitazoxanide metabolite, tizoxanide was docked close to the ATP-binding region as well as in the exit tunnel, located in the transmembrane region. CONCLUSION These findings in Giardia intestinalis, support the possible role of ABC-C1 in drug efflux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Ángeles-Arvizu
- Departamento de Zoología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Sergio Enriquez-Flores
- Grupo de Investigación en Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Laboratorio de EIMyT, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Ciudad de México, 04530, México
| | - Alma Jiménez-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Zoología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Armando Pérez-Rangel
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, 07360, México
| | - Juan Pedro Luna-Arias
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, 07360, México
| | - Araceli Castillo-Romero
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de La Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, 44340, México
| | - José Manuel Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN. Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México, 07360, México.
| | - Gloria León-Avila
- Departamento de Zoología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México.
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Oxygen levels are key to understanding "Anaerobic" protozoan pathogens with micro-aerophilic lifestyles. Adv Microb Physiol 2021; 79:163-240. [PMID: 34836611 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Publications abound on the physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of "anaerobic" protozoal parasites as usually grown under "anaerobic" culture conditions. The media routinely used are poised at low redox potentials using techniques that remove O2 to "undetectable" levels in sealed containers. However there is growing understanding that these culture conditions do not faithfully resemble the O2 environments these organisms inhabit. Here we review for protists lacking oxidative energy metabolism, the oxygen cascade from atmospheric to intracellular concentrations and relevant methods of measurements of O2, some well-studied parasitic or symbiotic protozoan lifestyles, their homeodynamic metabolic and redox balances, organism-drug-oxygen interactions, and the present and future prospects for improved drugs and treatment regimes.
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Abstract
Giardia duodenalis captured the attention of Leeuwenhoek in 1681 while he was examining his own diarrheal stool, but, ironically, it did not really gain attention as a human pathogen until the 1960s, when outbreaks were reported. Key technological advances, including in vitro cultivation, genomic and proteomic databases, and advances in microscopic and molecular approaches, have led to an understanding that this is a eukaryotic organism with a reduced genome rather than a truly premitochondriate eukaryote. This has included the discovery of mitosomes (vestiges of mitochondria), a transport system with many of the features of the Golgi apparatus, and even evidence for a sexual or parasexual cycle. Cell biology approaches have led to a better understanding of how Giardia survives with two nuclei and how it goes through its life cycle as a noninvasive organism in the hostile environment of the lumen of the host intestine. Studies of its immunology and pathogenesis have moved past the general understanding of the importance of the antibody response in controlling infection to determining the key role of the Th17 response. This work has led to understanding of the requirement for a balanced host immune response that avoids the extremes of an excessive response with collateral damage or one that is unable to clear the organism. This understanding is especially important in view of the remarkable ranges of early manifestations, which range from asymptomatic to persistent diarrhea and weight loss, and longer-term sequelae that include growth stunting in children who had no obvious symptoms and a high frequency of postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
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Emery-Corbin SJ, Su Q, Tichkule S, Baker L, Lacey E, Jex AR. In vitro selection of Giardia duodenalis for Albendazole resistance identifies a β-tubulin mutation at amino acid E198K. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2021; 16:162-173. [PMID: 34237690 PMCID: PMC8267433 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Benzimidazole-2-carbamate (BZ) compounds, including Albendazole (Alb), are one of just two drug classes approved to treat the gastrointestinal protist Giardia duodenalis. Benzimidazoles bind to the tubulin dimer interface overlapping the colchicine binding site (CBS) of β-tubulin, thereby inhibiting microtubule polymerisation and disrupting microtubule networks. These BZ compounds are widely used as anthelmintic, anti-fungal and anti-giardial drugs. However, in helminths and fungi, BZ-resistance is widespread and caused by specific point mutations primarily occurring at F167, E198 and F200 in β-tubulin isoform 1. BZ-resistance in Giardia is reported clinically and readily generated in vitro, with significant implications for Giardia control. In Giardia, BZ mode of action (MOA) and resistance mechanisms are presumed but not proven, and no mutations in β-tubulin have been reported in association with Alb resistance (AlbR). Herein, we undertook detailed in vitro drug-susceptibility screens of 13 BZ compounds and 7 Alb structural analogues in isogenic G. duodenalis isolates selected for AlbR and podophyllotoxin, another β-tubulin inhibitor, as well as explored cross-resistance to structurally unrelated, metronidazole (Mtz). AlbR lines exhibited co-resistance to many structural variants in the BZ-pharmacophore, and cross-resistance to podophyllotoxin. AlbR lines were not cross-resistant to Mtz, but MtzR lines had enhanced survival in Alb. Lastly, Alb analogues with longer thioether substituents had decreased potency against our AlbR lines. In silico modelling indicated the Alb-β-tubulin interaction in Giardia partially overlaps the CBS and corresponds to residues associated with BZ-resistance in helminths and fungi (F167, E198, F200). Sequencing of Giardia β-tubulin identified a single nucleotide polymorphism resulting in a mutation from glutamic acid to lysine at amino acid 198 (E198K). To our knowledge, this is the first β-tubulin mutation reported for protistan BZ-resistance. This study provides insight into BZ mode of action and resistance in Giardia, and presents a potential avenue for a genetic test for clinically resistance isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Emery-Corbin
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Qiao Su
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Swapnil Tichkule
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise Baker
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Ernest Lacey
- Microbial Screening Technologies, Smithfield, NSW, Australia; Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Aaron R Jex
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Multimodal regulation of encystation in Giardia duodenalis revealed by deep proteomics. Int J Parasitol 2021; 51:809-824. [PMID: 34331939 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2021.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cyst formation in the parasitic protist Giardia duodenalis is critical to its transmission. Existing proteomic data quantifies only 17% of coding genes transcribed during encystation and does not cover the complete process from trophozoite to mature cyst. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, we have quantified proteomic changes across encystation and compared this with published transcriptomic data. We reproducibly identified 3863 (64.5% of Giardia proteins) and quantified 3382 proteins (56.5% of Giardia proteins) over standard trophozoite growth (TY), during low-bile encystation priming (LB), 16 h into encystation (EC), and at cyst maturation (C). This work provides the first known expanded observation of encystation at the proteomic level and triples the coverage of previous encystation proteomes. One-third (1169 proteins) of the quantified proteome is differentially expressed in the mature cyst relative to the trophozoite, including proteasomal machinery, metabolic pathways, and secretory proteins. Changes in lipid metabolism indicated a shift in lipid species dependency during encystation. Consistent with this, we identified the first, putative lipid transporters in this species, representing the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-related lipid transfer (StARkin), oxysterol binding protein related protein (ORP/Osh) and glycosphingolipid transfer protein (GLTP) families, and follow their differential expression over cyst formation. Lastly, we undertook correlation analyses of the transcriptome and proteome of trophozoites and cysts, and found evidence of post-transcriptional regulation of key protein classes (RNA binding proteins) and stage-specific genes (encystation markers) implicating translation-repression in encystation. We provide the most extensive proteomic analysis of encystation in Giardia to date and the first known exploration across its complete duration. This work identifies encystation as highly coordinated, involving major changes in proteostasis, metabolism and membrane dynamics, and indicates a potential role for post-transcriptional regulation, mediated through RNA-binding proteins. Together our work provides a valuable resource for Giardia research and the development of transmission-blocking anti-giardials.
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Loderstädt U, Frickmann H. Antimicrobial resistance of the enteric protozoon Giardia duodenalis - A narrative review. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2021; 11:29-43. [PMID: 34237023 PMCID: PMC8287975 DOI: 10.1556/1886.2021.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction As therapy-refractory giardiasis is an emerging health issue, this review aimed at summarizing mechanisms of reduced antimicrobial susceptibility in Giardia duodenalis and strategies to overcome this problem. Methods A narrative review on antimicrobial resistance in G. duodenalis was based upon a selective literature research. Results Failed therapeutic success has been observed for all standard therapies of giardiasis comprising nitroimidazoles like metronidazole or tinidazole as first line substances but also benznidazoles like albendazole and mebendazole, the nitrofuran furazolidone, the thiazolide nitazoxanide, and the aminoglycoside paromomycin. Multicausality of the resistance phenotypes has been described, with differentiated gene expression due to epigenetic and post-translational modifications playing a considerable bigger role than mutational base exchanges in the parasite DNA. Standardized resistance testing algorithms are not available and clinical evidence for salvage therapies is scarce in spite of research efforts targeting new giardicidal drugs. Conclusion In case of therapeutic failure of first line nitroimidazoles, salvage strategies including various options for combination therapy exist in spite of limited evidence and lacking routine diagnostic-compatible assays for antimicrobial susceptibility testing in G. duodenalis. Sufficiently powered clinical and diagnostic studies are needed to overcome both the lacking evidence regarding salvage therapy and the diagnostic neglect of antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Loderstädt
- 1Institute for Infection Control and Infectious Diseases, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hagen Frickmann
- 2Department of Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Bundeswehr Hospital Hamburg, 20359 Hamburg, Germany.,3Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Giardiasis remains a common cause of diarrhea and intestinal enteropathy globally. Here we give an overview of clinical treatment studies and discuss potential mechanisms and molecular targets for in-vitro testing of drug resistance. RECENT FINDINGS Giardia is a cause of disease both in diarrheal and nondiarrheal cases. The prevalence of treatment refractory giardiasis is increasing. Recent studies reveal 5-nitroimidazole refractory infection occurs in up to 50% of cases. Mechanisms of drug resistance are not known. Placebo controlled studies of drug efficacy, taking the self-limiting course of giardiasis into account, has not been reported. No randomized controlled trials of treatment of refractory infection have been performed the last 25 years. Based on the clinical studies reported, combination treatment with a 5-nitroimidazole and a benzimidazole is more effective than repeated courses of 5-nitroimidazole or monotherapies in refractory cases. Quinacrine is effective in refractory cases, but potentially severe side effects limit its use. SUMMARY A combination of a 5-nitroimidazole and albendazole or mebendazole, and quinacrine monotherapy, are rational choices in nitroimidazole refractory infections, but randomized controlled studies are needed. Further research into more recent clinical isolates is necessary to uncover mechanisms for the increase in metronidazole refractory giardiasis observed during the last decade.
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19
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Emery-Corbin SJ, Hamey JJ, Ansell BRE, Balan B, Tichkule S, Stroehlein AJ, Cooper C, McInerney BV, Hediyeh-Zadeh S, Vuong D, Crombie A, Lacey E, Davis MJ, Wilkins MR, Bahlo M, Svärd SG, Gasser RB, Jex AR. Eukaryote-Conserved Methylarginine Is Absent in Diplomonads and Functionally Compensated in Giardia. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 37:3525-3549. [PMID: 32702104 PMCID: PMC7743719 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylation is a common posttranslational modification of arginine and lysine in eukaryotic proteins. Methylproteomes are best characterized for higher eukaryotes, where they are functionally expanded and evolved complex regulation. However, this is not the case for protist species evolved from the earliest eukaryotic lineages. Here, we integrated bioinformatic, proteomic, and drug-screening data sets to comprehensively explore the methylproteome of Giardia duodenalis-a deeply branching parasitic protist. We demonstrate that Giardia and related diplomonads lack arginine-methyltransferases and have remodeled conserved RGG/RG motifs targeted by these enzymes. We also provide experimental evidence for methylarginine absence in proteomes of Giardia but readily detect methyllysine. We bioinformatically infer 11 lysine-methyltransferases in Giardia, including highly diverged Su(var)3-9, Enhancer-of-zeste and Trithorax proteins with reduced domain architectures, and novel annotations demonstrating conserved methyllysine regulation of eukaryotic elongation factor 1 alpha. Using mass spectrometry, we identify more than 200 methyllysine sites in Giardia, including in species-specific gene families involved in cytoskeletal regulation, enriched in coiled-coil features. Finally, we use known methylation inhibitors to show that methylation plays key roles in replication and cyst formation in this parasite. This study highlights reduced methylation enzymes, sites, and functions early in eukaryote evolution, including absent methylarginine networks in the Diplomonadida. These results challenge the view that arginine methylation is eukaryote conserved and demonstrate that functional compensation of methylarginine was possible preceding expansion and diversification of these key networks in higher eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Emery-Corbin
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Joshua J Hamey
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Brendan R E Ansell
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Balu Balan
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Swapnil Tichkule
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Andreas J Stroehlein
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Crystal Cooper
- Central Analytical Research Facility (CARF), Institute for Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Bernie V McInerney
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility (APAF), Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Soroor Hediyeh-Zadeh
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Daniel Vuong
- Microbial Screening Technologies, Smithfield, NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew Crombie
- Microbial Screening Technologies, Smithfield, NSW, Australia
| | - Ernest Lacey
- Microbial Screening Technologies, Smithfield, NSW, Australia.,Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Melissa J Davis
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Bioinformatics Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Marc R Wilkins
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Melanie Bahlo
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Staffan G Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Robin B Gasser
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Aaron R Jex
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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20
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Chai X, Guo J, Dong R, Yang X, Deng C, Wei C, Xu J, Han W, Lu J, Gao C, Gao D, Huang C, Ke A, Li S, Li H, Tian Y, Gu Z, Liu S, Liu H, Chen Q, Liu F, Zhou J, Fan J, Shi G, Wu F, Cai J. Quantitative acetylome analysis reveals histone modifications that may predict prognosis in hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Transl Med 2021; 11:e313. [PMID: 33783990 PMCID: PMC7939233 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysine acetylation (Kac) as an important posttranslational modification of histones is essential for the regulation of gene expression in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the atlas of whole acetylated proteins in HCC tissues and the difference in protein acetylation between normal human tissues and HCC tissues are unknown. In this report, we characterized the proteome and acetyl proteome (acetylome) profile of normal, paracancerous, and HCC liver tissues in human clinical samples by quantitative proteomics techniques. We identified 6781 acetylation sites of 2582 proteins and quantified 2492 acetylation sites of 1190 proteins in normal, paracancerous, and HCC liver tissues. Among them, 15 proteins were multiacetylated with more than 10 lysine residues. The histone acetyltransferases p300 and CBP were found to be hyperacetylated in hepatitis B virus pathway. Moreover, we found that 250 Kac sites of 214 proteins were upregulated and 662 Kac sites of 451 proteins were downregulated in HCC compared with normal liver tissues. Additionally, the acetylation levels of lysine 120 in histone H2B (H2BK120ac), lysine 18 in histone H3.3 (H3.3K18ac), and lysine 77 in histone H4 (H4K77ac) were increased in HCC. Interestingly, the higher levels of H2BK120ac, H3.3K18ac, and H4K77ac were significantly associated with worse prognosis, such as poorer survival and higher recurrence in an independent clinical cohort of HCC patients. Overall, this study lays a foundation for understanding the functions of acetylation in HCC and provides potential prognostic factors for the diagnosis and therapy of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqiang Chai
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jianfei Guo
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress BiologyCenter for Excellence in Plant Molecular SciencesChinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of AgricultureAgricultural Genomics Institute at ShenzhenChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesShenzhenChina
| | - Ruizhao Dong
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Xuan Yang
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Chao Deng
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- School of Basic Medical SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Chuanyuan Wei
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - JiaJie Xu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
- School of Basic Medical SciencesFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Weiyu Han
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jiacheng Lu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Chao Gao
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Dongmei Gao
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Cheng Huang
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Aiwu Ke
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Shuangqi Li
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Huanping Li
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Yingming Tian
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Zhongkai Gu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Shuxian Liu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Hang Liu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Qilong Chen
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine ResearchShanghai University of Traditional Chinese MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jian Zhou
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jia Fan
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Guoming Shi
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Feizhen Wu
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Jiabin Cai
- Department of Liver Surgery and Transplantation of Zhongshan Hospital, Liver Cancer Institute of Zhongshan Hospital, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, Laboratory of epigenetics of Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects of Children's HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
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21
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Nitroreductase Activites in Giardia lamblia: ORF 17150 Encodes a Quinone Reductase with Nitroreductase Activity. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10020129. [PMID: 33513906 PMCID: PMC7912051 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestinal diplomonadid Giardia lamblia is a causative agent of persistent diarrhea. Current treatments are based on nitro drugs, especially metronidazole. Nitro compounds are activated by reduction, yielding toxic intermediates. The enzymatic systems responsible for this activation are not completely understood. By fractionating cell free crude extracts by size exclusion chromatography followed by mass spectrometry, enzymes with nitroreductase (NR) activities are identified. The protein encoded by ORF 17150 found in two pools with NR activities is overexpressed and characterized. In pools of fractions with main NR activities, previously-known NRs are identified, as well as a previously uncharacterized protein encoded by ORF 17150. Recombinant protein 17150 is a flavoprotein with NADPH-dependent quinone reductase and NR activities. Besides a set of previously identified NRs, we have identified a novel enzyme with NR activity.
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22
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Heller M, Braga S, Müller N, Müller J. Transfection With Plasmid Causing Stable Expression of a Foreign Gene Affects General Proteome Pattern in Giardia lamblia Trophozoites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:602756. [PMID: 33392107 PMCID: PMC7775365 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.602756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia lamblia is an important causative agent of persistent diarrhea in humans, domestic animals, and cattle. Basic research is usually performed with the strain WBC6 and includes genetic manipulations such as transfections. Here, we investigate how transfection with a plasmid causing stable expression of a foreign gene affects the whole proteome pattern. Using shotgun mass spectrometry, we compare the proteomes of untransfected trophozoites to trophozoites transfected with Escherichia coli glucuronidase A (GusA). Besides GusA, which is detected in the transfected trophozoites only, the proteomes of untransfected and transfected trophozoites differ by 132 differentially expressed proteins. In particular, transfection induces antigenic variation. Since transfection causing stable expression affects the proteome pattern, transfection experiments should take into account this effect. Due to a unique peptide panel, GusA is an example for a suitable internal standard for experiments involving transfected cells. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD022565.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Heller
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sophie Braga
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Müller
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Joachim Müller
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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23
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Ochoa-Maganda VY, Rangel-Castañeda IA, Suárez-Rico DO, Cortés-Zárate R, Hernández-Hernández JM, Pérez-Rangel A, Chiquete-Félix N, León-Ávila G, González-Pozos S, Gaona-Bernal J, Castillo-Romero A. Antigiardial Activity of Acetylsalicylic Acid Is Associated with Overexpression of HSP70 and Membrane Transporters. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13120440. [PMID: 33287104 PMCID: PMC7761642 DOI: 10.3390/ph13120440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia lamblia is a flagellated protozoan responsible for giardiasis, a worldwide diarrheal disease. The adverse effects of the pharmacological treatments and the appearance of drug resistance have increased the rate of therapeutic failures. In the search for alternative therapeutics, drug repositioning has become a popular strategy. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) exhibits diverse biological activities through multiple mechanisms. However, the full spectrum of its activities is incompletely understood. In this study we show that ASA displayed direct antigiardial activity and affected the adhesion and growth of trophozoites in a time-dose-dependent manner. Electron microscopy images revealed remarkable morphological alterations in the membrane, ventral disk, and caudal region. Using mass spectrometry and real-time quantitative reverse transcription (qRT-PCR), we identified that ASA induced the overexpression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). ASA also showed a significant increase of five ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (giABC, giABCP, giMDRP, giMRPL and giMDRAP1). Additionally, we found low toxicity on Caco-2 cells. Taken together, these results suggest an important role of HSPs and ABC drug transporters in contributing to stress tolerance and protecting cells from ASA-induced stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verónica Yadira Ochoa-Maganda
- Departamento de Fisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44340, Mexico; (V.Y.O.-M.); (D.O.S.-R.)
| | - Itzia Azucena Rangel-Castañeda
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México 07360, Mexico; (I.A.R.-C.); (J.M.H.-H.); (A.P.-R.)
| | - Daniel Osmar Suárez-Rico
- Departamento de Fisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44340, Mexico; (V.Y.O.-M.); (D.O.S.-R.)
| | - Rafael Cortés-Zárate
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44340, Mexico; (R.C.-Z.); (J.G.-B.)
| | - José Manuel Hernández-Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México 07360, Mexico; (I.A.R.-C.); (J.M.H.-H.); (A.P.-R.)
| | - Armando Pérez-Rangel
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México 07360, Mexico; (I.A.R.-C.); (J.M.H.-H.); (A.P.-R.)
| | - Natalia Chiquete-Félix
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico;
| | - Gloria León-Ávila
- Departamento de Zoología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, IPN, Carpio y Plan de Ayala S/N, Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México 11340, Mexico;
| | - Sirenia González-Pozos
- Unidad de Microscopía Electrónica LaNSE, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, Ciudad de México 07360, Mexico;
| | - Jorge Gaona-Bernal
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44340, Mexico; (R.C.-Z.); (J.G.-B.)
| | - Araceli Castillo-Romero
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, Col. Independencia, Guadalajara, Jalisco 44340, Mexico; (R.C.-Z.); (J.G.-B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52-1-331-058-5200
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24
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Lopes-Oliveira LAP, Fantinatti M, Da-Cruz AM. In vitro-induction of metronidazole-resistant Giardia duodenalis is not associated with nucleotide alterations in the genes involved in pro-drug activation. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2020; 115:e200303. [PMID: 33146255 PMCID: PMC7607557 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760200303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardiasis is an infectious disease caused by Giardia duodenalis. The pro-drug metronidazole (MTZ) is the first-line treatment for giardiasis. Parasite’s proteins as pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), ferredoxin (Fd), nitroreductase-1 (NR-1) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) participate in MTZ activation. Here, we showed Giardia trophozoites long-term exposed to MTZ presented higher IC50 than controls, showing the drug influenced the parasite survival. That reduction in MTZ’s susceptibility does not seem to be related to mutations in the genes pfor, fd, nr-1 or trxr. It points that different mechanism as alterations in other metabolic pathways can account for Giardia resistance to MTZ therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Fantinatti
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas Médicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Alda Maria Da-Cruz
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas Médicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.,Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Disciplina de Parasitologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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25
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Riches A, Hart CJS, Trenholme KR, Skinner-Adams TS. Anti- Giardia Drug Discovery: Current Status and Gut Feelings. J Med Chem 2020; 63:13330-13354. [PMID: 32869995 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Giardia parasites are ubiquitous protozoans of global importance that impact a wide range of animals including humans. They are the most common enteric pathogen of cats and dogs in developed countries and infect ∼1 billion people worldwide. While Giardia infections can be asymptomatic, they often result in severe and chronic diseases. There is also mounting evidence that they are linked to postinfection disorders. Despite growing evidence of the widespread morbidity associated with Giardia infections, current treatment options are limited to compound classes with broad antimicrobial activity. Frontline anti-Giardia drugs are also associated with increasing drug resistance and treatment failures. To improve the health and well-being of millions, new selective anti-Giardia drugs are needed alongside improved health education initiatives. Here we discuss current treatment options together with recent advances and gaps in drug discovery. We also propose criteria to guide the discovery of new anti-Giardia compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Riches
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Biomedical Manufacturing, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Christopher J S Hart
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Katharine R Trenholme
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, 300 Herston Road, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia.,School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - Tina S Skinner-Adams
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
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26
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Lin HC, Chu LJ, Huang PJ, Cheng WH, Zheng YH, Huang CY, Hong SW, Chen LC, Lin HA, Wang JY, Chen RM, Lin WN, Tang P, Huang KY. Proteomic signatures of metronidazole-resistant Trichomonas vaginalis reveal novel proteins associated with drug resistance. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:274. [PMID: 32487244 PMCID: PMC7268490 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04148-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trichomoniasis is the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. Metronidazole (MTZ) is a widely used drug for the treatment of trichomoniasis; however, increased resistance of the parasite to MTZ has emerged as a highly problematic public health issue. METHODS We conducted iTRAQ-based analysis to profile the proteomes of MTZ-sensitive (MTZ-S) and MTZ-resistant (MTZ-R) parasites. STRING and gene set enrichment analysis (GESA) were utilized to explore the protein-protein interaction networks and enriched pathways of the differentially expressed proteins, respectively. Proteins potentially related to MTZ resistance were selected for functional validation. RESULTS A total of 3123 proteins were identified from the MTZ-S and MTZ-R proteomes in response to drug treatment. Among the identified proteins, 304 proteins were differentially expressed in the MTZ-R proteome, including 228 upregulated and 76 downregulated proteins. GSEA showed that the amino acid-related metabolism, including arginine, proline, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate are the most upregulated pathways in the MTZ-R proteome, whereas oxidative phosphorylation is the most downregulated pathway. Ten proteins categorized into the gene set of oxidative phosphorylation were ATP synthase subunit-related proteins. Drug resistance was further examined in MTZ-S parasites pretreated with the ATP synthase inhibitors oligomycin and bafilomycin A1, showing enhanced MTZ resistance and potential roles of ATP synthase in drug susceptibility. CONCLUSIONS We provide novel insights into previously unidentified proteins associated with MTZ resistance, paving the way for future development of new drugs against MTZ-refractory trichomoniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Chung Lin
- Division of Clinical Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan
| | - Lichieh Julie Chu
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan.,Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan
| | - Po-Jung Huang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan.,Genomic Medicine Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Hung Cheng
- Molecular Regulation and Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsing Zheng
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yun Huang
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Wen Hong
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan
| | - Lih-Chyang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, 252, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-An Lin
- Division of Infection, Department of Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital SongShan Branch, Taipei City, 105, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Yang Wang
- Division of Family Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital Songshan Branch, Taipei City, 105, Taiwan
| | - Ruei-Min Chen
- Division of Clinical Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ning Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City, 242, Taiwan
| | - Petrus Tang
- Molecular Regulation and Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Yang Huang
- Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei City, 114, Taiwan.
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27
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Comparative proteomics of three Giardia lamblia strains: investigation of antigenic variation in the post-genomic era. Parasitology 2020; 147:1008-1018. [PMID: 32338227 PMCID: PMC7332775 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182020000657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Giardia lamblia is a causative agent of persistent diarrhoea widespread in regions with low hygienic standards. Laboratory research is based on cloned lines issuing from various patient isolates typed in the late 1980s and 90s using restriction analysis and serology. In the present study, we compared the well-characterized strain WBC6 with another clone of the parent WB isolate termed WBA1 and with a clone from another isolate, GS/M-83-H7, using shotgun mass spectrometry proteomics. We identified 398 proteins differentially expressed between the GS and both WB isolates and 97 proteins differentially expressed between the two WB isolates. We investigated the expression levels of the predominant variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs) in each clone and matched the previously described major VSPs of each strain to the corresponding open reading frame sequences identified by whole-genome sequencing efforts. Furthermore, since the original WB isolate comes from a patient treated with metronidazole, we compared the susceptibilities of the strains to nitro compounds, as well the expression levels of enzymes involved in nitro reduction and on the corresponding enzyme activities and found distinct differences between the three strains.
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28
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Jex AR, Svärd S, Hagen KD, Starcevich H, Emery-Corbin SJ, Balan B, Nosala C, Dawson SC. Recent advances in functional research in Giardia intestinalis. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2020; 107:97-137. [PMID: 32122532 PMCID: PMC7878119 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2019.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This review considers current advances in tools to investigate the functional biology of Giardia, it's coding and non-coding genes, features and cellular and molecular biology. We consider major gaps in current knowledge of the parasite and discuss the present state-of-the-art in its in vivo and in vitro cultivation. Advances in in silico tools, including for the modelling non-coding RNAs and genomic elements, as well as detailed exploration of coding genes through inferred homology to model organisms, have provided significant, primary level insight. Improved methods to model the three-dimensional structure of proteins offer new insights into their function, and binding interactions with ligands, other proteins or precursor drugs, and offer substantial opportunities to prioritise proteins for further study and experimentation. These approaches can be supplemented by the growing and highly accessible arsenal of systems-based methods now being applied to Giardia, led by genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic methods, but rapidly incorporating advanced tools for detection of real-time transcription, evaluation of chromatin states and direct measurement of macromolecular complexes. Methods to directly interrogate and perturb gene function have made major leaps in recent years, with CRISPr-interference now available. These approaches, coupled with protein over-expression, fluorescent labelling and in vitro and in vivo imaging, are set to revolutionize the field and herald an exciting time during which the field may finally realise Giardia's long proposed potential as a model parasite and eukaryote.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron R Jex
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Staffan Svärd
- Centre for Biomedicine, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kari D Hagen
- College of Biological Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Hannah Starcevich
- College of Biological Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Samantha J Emery-Corbin
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Balu Balan
- Population Health and Immunity Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Chris Nosala
- College of Biological Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Scott C Dawson
- College of Biological Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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29
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Drug resistance in Giardia: Mechanisms and alternative treatments for Giardiasis. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2020; 107:201-282. [PMID: 32122530 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2019.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of chemotherapeutic drugs is the main resource against clinical giardiasis due to the lack of approved vaccines. Resistance of G. duodenalis to the most used drugs to treat giardiasis, metronidazole and albendazole, is a clinical issue of growing concern and yet unknown impact, respectively. In the search of new drugs, the completion of the Giardia genome project and the use of biochemical, molecular and bioinformatics tools allowed the identification of ligands/inhibitors for about one tenth of ≈150 potential drug targets in this parasite. Further, the synthesis of second generation nitroimidazoles and benzimidazoles along with high-throughput technologies have allowed not only to define overall mechanisms of resistance to metronidazole but to screen libraries of repurposed drugs and new pharmacophores, thereby increasing the known arsenal of anti-giardial compounds to some hundreds, with most demonstrating activity against metronidazole or albendazole-resistant Giardia. In particular, cysteine-modifying agents which include omeprazole, disulfiram, allicin and auranofin outstand due to their pleiotropic activity based on the extensive repertoire of thiol-containing proteins and the microaerophilic metabolism of this parasite. Other promising agents derived from higher organisms including phytochemicals, lactoferrin and propolis as well as probiotic bacteria/fungi have also demonstrated significant potential for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes in giardiasis. In this context the present chapter offers a comprehensive review of the current knowledge, including commonly prescribed drugs, causes of therapeutic failures, drug resistance mechanisms, strategies for the discovery of new agents and alternative drug therapies.
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30
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Lalle M, Fiorillo A. The protein 14-3-3: A functionally versatile molecule in Giardia duodenalis. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2019; 106:51-103. [PMID: 31630760 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is a cosmopolitan zoonotic protozoan parasite causing giardiasis, one of the most common diarrhoeal diseases in human and animals. Beyond its public health relevance, Giardia represents a valuable and fascinating model microorganism. The deep-branching phylogenetic position of Giardia, its simple life cycle and its minimalistic genomic and cellular organization provide a unique opportunity to define basal and "ancestral" eukaryotic functions. The eukaryotic 14-3-3 protein family represents a distinct example of phosphoserine/phosphothreonine-binding proteins. The extended network of protein-protein interactions established by 14-3-3 proteins place them at the crossroad of multiple signalling pathways that regulate physiological and pathological cellular processes. Despite the remarkable insight on 14-3-3 protein in different organisms, from yeast to humans, so far little attention was given to the study of this protein in protozoan parasites. However, in the last years, research efforts have provided evidences on unique properties of the single 14-3-3 protein of Giardia and on its association in key aspects of Giardia life cycle. In the first part of this chapter, a general overview of the features commonly shared among 14-3-3 proteins in different organisms (i.e. structure, target recognition, mode of action and regulatory mechanisms) is included. The second part focus on the current knowledge on the biochemistry and biology of the Giardia 14-3-3 protein and on the possibility to use this protein as target to propose new strategies for developing innovative antigiardial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Lalle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, European Union Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
| | - Annarita Fiorillo
- Department of Biochemical Sciences "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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31
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Comparative Pathobiology of the Intestinal Protozoan Parasites Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, and Cryptosporidium parvum. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8030116. [PMID: 31362451 PMCID: PMC6789772 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8030116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites can infect the human intestinal tract causing serious diseases. In the following article, we focused on the three most prominent intestinal protozoan pathogens, namely, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, and Cryptosporidium parvum. Both C. parvum and G. lamblia colonize the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum and are the most common causative agents of persistent diarrhea (i.e., cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis). Entamoeba histolytica colonizes the colon and, unlike the two former pathogens, may invade the colon wall and disseminate to other organs, mainly the liver, thereby causing life-threatening amebiasis. Here, we present condensed information concerning the pathobiology of these three diseases.
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Müller J, Müller N. Nitroreductases of bacterial origin in Giardia lamblia: Potential role in detoxification of xenobiotics. Microbiologyopen 2019; 8:e904. [PMID: 31343119 PMCID: PMC7938412 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The anaerobic parasite Giardia lamblia, causative agent of persistent diarrhea, contains a family of nitroreductase genes most likely acquired by lateral transfer from anaerobic bacteria or archaebacteria. Two of these nitroreductases, containing a ferredoxin domain at their N-terminus, NR1, and NR2, have been characterized previously. Here, we present the characterization of a third member of this family, NR3. In functional assays, recombinant NR1 and NR3 reduced quinones like menadione and the antibiotic tetracycline, and-to much lesser extents-the nitro compound dinitrotoluene. Conversely, recombinant NR2 had no activity on tetracycline. Escherichia coli expressing NR3 were less susceptible to tetracycline, but more susceptible to the nitro compound metronidazole under semi-aerobic growth conditions. G. lamblia overexpressing NR1 and NR3, but not lines overexpressing NR2, are more susceptible to the nitro drug nitazoxanide. These findings suggest that NR3 is an active quinone reductase with a mode of action similar to NR1, but different from NR2. The biological function of this family of enzymes may reside in the use of xenobiotics as final electron acceptors. Thereby, these enzymes may provide at least two evolutionary advantages namely a higher potential to recycle NAD(P) as electron acceptors for the (fermentative) energy and intermediary metabolism, and the possibility to inactivate toxic xenobiotics produced by microorganisms living in concurrence inside the intestinal habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Müller
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Parasitology, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
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Saghaug CS, Klotz C, Kallio JP, Brattbakk HR, Stokowy T, Aebischer T, Kursula I, Langeland N, Hanevik K. Genetic variation in metronidazole metabolism and oxidative stress pathways in clinical Giardia lamblia assemblage A and B isolates. Infect Drug Resist 2019; 12:1221-1235. [PMID: 31190910 PMCID: PMC6519707 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s177997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Treatment-refractory Giardia cases have increased rapidly within the last decade. No markers of resistance nor a standardized susceptibility test have been established yet, but several enzymes and their pathways have been associated with metronidazole (MTZ) resistant Giardia. Very limited data are available regarding genetic variation in these pathways. We aimed to investigate genetic variation in metabolic pathway genes proposed to be involved in MTZ resistance in recently acquired, cultured clinical isolates. Methods: Whole genome sequencing of 12 assemblage A2 and 8 assemblage B isolates was done, to decipher genomic variation in Giardia. Twenty-nine genes were identified in a literature search and investigated for their single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the coding/non-coding regions of the genes, either as amino acid changing (non-synonymous SNVs) or non-changing SNVs (synonymous). Results: In Giardia assemblage B, several genes involved in MTZ activation or oxidative stress management were found to have higher numbers of non-synonymous SNVs (thioredoxin peroxidase, nitroreductase 1, ferredoxin 2, NADH oxidase, nitroreductase 2, alcohol dehydrogenase, ferredoxin 4 and ferredoxin 1) than the average variation. For Giardia assemblage A2, the highest genetic variability was found in the ferredoxin 2, ferredoxin 6 and in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidoreductase putative genes. SNVs found in the ferredoxins and nitroreductases were analyzed further by alignment and homology modeling. SNVs close to the iron-sulfur cluster binding sites in nitroreductase-1 and 2 and ferredoxin 2 and 4 could potentially affect protein function. Flavohemoprotein seems to be a variable-copy gene, due to higher, but variable coverage compared to other genes investigated. Conclusion: In clinical Giardia isolates, genetic variability is common in important genes in the MTZ metabolizing pathway and in the management of oxidative and nitrosative stress and includes high numbers of non-synonymous SNVs. Some of the identified amino acid changes could potentially affect the respective proteins important in the MTZ metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Saghaug
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Christian Klotz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Juha P Kallio
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Hans-Richard Brattbakk
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Center for Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Tomasz Stokowy
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Center for Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Toni Aebischer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Unit 16 Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Inari Kursula
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Biocenter Oulu and Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Nina Langeland
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Department of Medicine, Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway.,Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Hordaland, Norway
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Müller J, Braga S, Heller M, Müller N. Resistance formation to nitro drugs in Giardia lamblia: No common markers identified by comparative proteomics. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2019; 9:112-119. [PMID: 30889439 PMCID: PMC6423486 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In order to elucidate the question whether resistance to nitro drugs in G. lamblia is due to common resistance markers, trophozoites of three resistant G. lamblia strains, namely C4, 1062ID10, and 713M3 were grown in the presence of the two nitro drugs metronidazole and nitazoxanide and compared to their corresponding wild-types WBC6, 106, and 713 by mass spectometry shotgun analysis of their proteomes. Depending on the strain and the nitro drug, more than 200 to 500 differentially expressed proteins were identified, but there were no common patterns across strains and drugs. All resistant strains underwent antigenic variation with distinct surface antigens like variant surface proteins or cysteine rich proteins depending on strain and nitro compound. A closer look on enzymes involved in nitroreduction and detoxification of nitro radicals, NO or O2 suggested the existence of distinct strategies for each drug and each strain. Therefore, we conclude that resistance to nitro drugs in G. lamblia is not correlated with a specific pattern of differentially expressed proteins and therefore seems not to be the result of a directed process. Is resistance to nitro drugs in G. lamblia due to common resistance markers? Three resistant strains were grown in the presence of two nitro drugs separately and compared to wild-types by MS shotgun analysis. More than 200 to 500 differentially expressed proteins identified depending on strain and drug. No common patterns across strains and drugs. Strain specific antigenic variation and strategies linked to nitro reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Berne, Switzerland.
| | - Sophie Braga
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Berne, Freiburgstrasse 15, CH-3010, Berne, Switzerland.
| | - Manfred Heller
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Berne, Freiburgstrasse 15, CH-3010, Berne, Switzerland.
| | - Norbert Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Berne, Switzerland.
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Gadelha APR, Bravim B, Vidal J, Reignault LC, Cosme B, Huber K, Bracher F, de Souza W. Alterations on growth and cell organization of Giardia intestinalis trophozoites after treatment with KH-TFMDI, a novel class III histone deacetylase inhibitor. Int J Med Microbiol 2019; 309:130-142. [PMID: 30665874 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia trophozoites have developed resistance mechanisms to currently available compounds, leading to treatment failures. In this context, the development of new additional agents is mandatory. Sirtuins, which are class III NAD+-dependent histone deacetylases, have been considered important targets for the development of new anti-parasitic drugs. Here, we evaluated the activity of KH-TFMDI, a novel 3-arylideneindolin-2-one-type sirtuin inhibitor, on G. intestinalis trophozoites. This compound decreased the trophozoite growth presenting an IC50 value lower than nicotinamide, a moderately active inhibitor of yeast and human sirtuins. Light and electron microscopy analysis showed the presence of multinucleated cell clusters suggesting that the cytokinesis could be compromised in treated trophozoites. Cell rounding, concomitantly with the folding of the ventro-lateral flange and flagella internalization, was also observed. These cells eventually died by a mechanism which lead to DNA/nuclear damage, formation of multi-lamellar bodies and annexin V binding on the parasite surface. Taken together, these data show that KH-TFMDI has significant effects against G. intestinalis trophozoites proliferation and structural organization and suggest that histone deacetylation pathway should be explored on this protozoon as target for chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Paula R Gadelha
- Diretoria de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciências da Vida, Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Bárbara Bravim
- Diretoria de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciências da Vida, Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Juliana Vidal
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Lissa Catherine Reignault
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Bruno Cosme
- Diretoria de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciências da Vida, Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Kilian Huber
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Drug Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Franz Bracher
- Department of Pharmacy, Center for Drug Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Diretoria de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciências da Vida, Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens e Centro Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagens, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Lagunas-Rangel FA, Bermúdez-Cruz RM. Epigenetics in the early divergent eukaryotic Giardia duodenalis: An update. Biochimie 2019; 156:123-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Emery SJ, Baker L, Ansell BRE, Mirzaei M, Haynes PA, McConville MJ, Svärd SG, Jex AR. Differential protein expression and post-translational modifications in metronidazole-resistant Giardia duodenalis. Gigascience 2018; 7:4931738. [PMID: 29688452 PMCID: PMC5913674 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giy024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Metronidazole (Mtz) is the frontline drug treatment for multiple anaerobic pathogens, including the gastrointestinal protist, Giardia duodenalis. However, treatment failure is common and linked to in vivo drug resistance. In Giardia, in vitro drug-resistant lines allow controlled experimental interrogation of resistance mechanisms in isogenic cultures. However, resistance-associated changes are inconsistent between lines, phenotypic data are incomplete, and resistance is rarely genetically fixed, highlighted by reversion to sensitivity after drug selection ceases or via passage through the life cycle. Comprehensive quantitative approaches are required to resolve isolate variability, fully define Mtz resistance phenotypes, and explore the role of post-translational modifications therein. Findings We performed quantitative proteomics to describe differentially expressed proteins in 3 seminal Mtz-resistant lines compared to their isogenic, Mtz-susceptible, parental line. We also probed changes in post-translational modifications including protein acetylation, methylation, ubiquitination, and phosphorylation via immunoblotting. We quantified more than 1,000 proteins in each genotype, recording substantial genotypic variation in differentially expressed proteins between isotypes. Our data confirm substantial changes in the antioxidant network, glycolysis, and electron transport and indicate links between protein acetylation and Mtz resistance, including cross-resistance to deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A in Mtz-resistant lines. Finally, we performed the first controlled, longitudinal study of Mtz resistance stability, monitoring lines after cessation of drug selection, revealing isolate-dependent phenotypic plasticity. Conclusions Our data demonstrate understanding that Mtz resistance must be broadened to post-transcriptional and post-translational responses and that Mtz resistance is polygenic, driven by isolate-dependent variation, and is correlated with changes in protein acetylation networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Emery
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise Baker
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Brendan R E Ansell
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Mehdi Mirzaei
- Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia.,Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul A Haynes
- Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
| | - Malcom J McConville
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Staffan G Svärd
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aaron R Jex
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Abstract
Giardia is the commonest parasitic diarrheal pathogen affecting humans and a frequent cause of waterborne/foodborne parasitic diseases worldwide. Prevalence of giardiasis is higher in children, living in poor, low hygiene settings in developing countries, and in travelers returning from highly endemic areas. The clinical picture of giardiasis is heterogeneous, with high variability in severity of clinical disease. It can become chronic or be followed by post-infectious sequelae. An alarming increase in cases refractory to the conventional treatment with nitroimidazoles (ie, metronidazole) has been reported in low prevalence settings, such as European Union countries, especially in patients returning from Asia. In view of its relevance, we aim in this review to recapitulate present clinical knowledge about Giardia, with a special focus on the challenge of treatment-refractory giardiasis. We propose a working definition of clinically drug-resistant giardiasis, summarize knowledge regarding resistance mechanisms, and discuss its clinical management according to research-based evidence and medical practice. Advances in development and identification of novel drugs and potential non-pharmacological alternatives are also reviewed with the overall aim to define knowledge gaps and suggest future directions for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Lalle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, European Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy,
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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