A short anogenital distance on MRI is a marker of endometriosis

A novel triad for the diagnosis of endometriosis, the short anogenital distance combines with high endometrial BCL2 and low endometrial FASL

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the anogenital distance from the upper verge of the anus to the posterior fourchette (AGDAF), FASL, and BCL2 combination as a reliable and non-invasive tool for the diagnosis of endometriosis.

METHODS

This study included 100 women with endometriosis and 50 women without endometriosis as the control group. All cases underwent history taking, body mass index (BMI) measurement, AGD measurement, and FASL and BCL2 immunohistochemical staining of the eutopic endometrial tissue.

RESULTS

This study included 150 women divided into endometriosis and control groups. Endometriosis cases significantly had shorter AGDAF, 22.9 ± 2.6 mm, compared with the control group, 27.3 ± 3.5 mm (P < 0.001). Lower FASL and higher BCL2 expression were associated with endometriosis (P < 0.001). The combined measurement of AGDAF (cut-off point 24.55 mm) with FASL and BCL2 was associated with endometriosis (P < 0.001). The combined diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of AGDAF, FASL, and BCL2 were 83%, 78%, 87.3%, and 69.6%, respectively. The area under the curve was greater for AGDAF, FASL, and BCL2 in combination than for individual measurements.

CONCLUSION

Combining short AGDAF with high BCL2 and low FASL is a highly sensitive, non-invasive diagnostic tool for endometriosis.

Shorter Anogenital Distance in Women with Ovarian Endometriomas and Adenomyosis, but Not Uterine Leiomyomas

We investigated whether anogenital distance (AGD) is associated with adenomyosis, endometriosis and uterine leiomyomas (UL, also called uterine fibroids). We recruited 81 women with UL, 105 with ovarian endometrioma (OE), 116 with adenomyosis, 28 with both adenomyosis and UL, and 100 control subjects with other acquired gynecological conditions but not endometriosis, adenomyosis, UL, or polycystic ovarian syndrome. Measurements from the anterior clitoral surface to the center of the anus (AGDAC), from the tip of the clitoris to the center of the anus (AGDACt), and from the posterior fourchette to the center of the anus (AGDAF) were made in all subjects. Multiple regression was performed to estimate the association between AGDs and presence of OE, adenomyosis, and UL while controlling for possible confounding factors. We found that, compared with controls, women with OE and adenomyosis, but not UL, had significantly shorter AGDAF, but not AGDAC. However, the amount of variance that could be explained by the disease status is rather moderate, suggesting that factors other than disease status, bodyweight and height were also responsible for AGD. Thus, prenatal exposure to reduced levels of androgen may increase the risk of developing endometriosis and adenomyosis. However, other factors may also contribute to the pathogenesis of endometriosis and adenomyosis.

In Memory of Ivo Brosens: Reflections on the Pathophysiology of Neonatal Uterine Bleeding

BACKGROUND

The occurrence of vaginal bleeding in early neonatal life has been observed for centuries and was considered a consequence of the sudden drop in circulating hormones following birth. As such, neonatal uterine bleeding was dismissed as having no clinical significance. Interest in the phenomenon was renewed when a new theory suggested a link between neonatal uterine bleeding (NUB) and accelerated endometrial maturation. This theory was based on the observation of a higher incidence of NUB in babies born post-term or after pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction, preeclampsia, or blood group incompatibility.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to review of available evidence on the pathogenesis of NUB.

METHOD

Review of available literature using Medline search (August 2022, no limit on start date or language) to identify articles that may link NUB with features of the uterus and/or endometrium.

OUTCOME

The fetal endometrial responses differ from that of the adult. In the fetus, the endometrium features progestogenic response only in a minority of cases. The endometrium in most newborn girls does not exhibit secretory or decidual changes which indicate lack of progesterone response. Most newborn girls do not have visible bleeding. Animal studies linked exogenous progestogen exposure during the period of organogenesis to poor endometrial gland development, progesterone resistance, and to alterations of reproductive performance. Although the fetal endometrium may not exhibit a full proliferative response, it is clearly sensitive to circulating estrogens. Molecular mechanisms involved in NUB may include "ontogenetic progesterone resistance."

CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK

Endometrial development and its response to withdrawal of hormones at birth varies and may be affected by intrauterine stressors and gestational age. Factors that affect endometrial development during fetal life and in preterm neonates can have implications on future reproductive performance.

Is There a Correlation between the Second-to-Four Digit Ratio (2D:4D) and Endometriosis? Results of a Case-Control Study

The second-to-four digit ratio (2D:4D) has been proposed as a marker of prenatal hormonal exposure. It is suggested that prenatal exposure to androgens results in a shorter 2D:4D ratio, whereas a prenatal oestrogenic environment results in a longer one. In addition, previous research has shown an association between exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and 2D:4D in animals and humans. On the endometriosis side, hypothetically, a longer 2D:4D ratio, reflecting a lower androgenic intrauterine milieu, could represent an indicator of the presence of the disease. In this light, we have designed a case-control study to compare 2D:4D measurements between women with and without endometriosis. Exclusion criteria included the presence of PCOS and previous trauma on the hand that could impact the measurement of the digit ratio. The 2D:4D ratio of the right hand was measured using a digital calliper. A total of 424 participants (endometriosis n = 212; controls n = 212) were recruited. The group of cases included 114 women with endometriomas and 98 patients with deep infiltrating endometriosis. The 2D:4D ratio was significantly higher in women with endometriosis compared to controls (p = 0.002). There is an association between a higher 2D:4D ratio and the presence of endometriosis. Our results support the hypothesis claiming potential influences of intrauterine hormonal and endocrine disruptors exposure on the onset of the disease.

Prenatal Origins of Endometriosis Pathology and Pain: Reviewing the Evidence of a Role for Low Testosterone

Endometriosis is a polygenic, estrogen-dependent, inflammatory disorder of uncertain aetiology associated with pain, infertility and reduced quality of life. While the positive association between endometriosis and estrogen is established, a suite of recent studies has demonstrated an inverse association between the presence of endometriosis lesions and levels of testosterone both prenatally and postnatally. The following narrative review provides new insights into the roles of testosterone in the aetiology, diagnosis, and management of endometriosis and associated symptoms, especially pain. A relatively short anogenital distance (AGD) is indicative of lower levels of testosterone during fetal development. A shorter AGD has recently been correlated with both a higher risk of developing endometriosis in adult life, and with known correlates of endometriosis including earlier onset of reproductive cycling, lower ovarian follicle number, lower postnatal testosterone, and premature ovarian insufficiency. During adult life, lower levels of testosterone are positively associated with key comorbidities of endometriosis, including days per month of pelvic pain and increased pain sensitivity. Biochemically, lower levels of testosterone are associated with higher levels of pro-inflammatory IL-1β and lower levels of β-endorphin. In rodents, prenatal administration of testosterone to females reduces their pain sensitivity in adulthood. The emerging convergent links of endometriosis with low prenatal and postnatal testosterone provide evidence of a centrally mediated effect beginning in early prenatal development, and persisting through adult life, with notable effects on pain sensitivity. They generate a novel conceptual framework for understanding, studying and treating this disorder, whereby endometriosis is mediated by a combination of high estrogen in endometrial tissue with low systemic and ovarian testosterone.

Prenatal exposure to organophosphate esters is associated with decreased anogenital distance in offspring

BACKGROUND

Evidence from in vitro and rodent studies suggests that organophosphate esters (OPEs) may disrupt sex steroid hormone homeostasis, but no human studies, to date, have examined the effects of in utero exposure to OPEs on offspring reproductive development.

OBJECTIVE

Anogenital distance (AGD) is a sensitive biomarker of fetal hormonal milieu and has been used to assess reproductive toxicity. We evaluated the longitudinal effects of prenatal exposure to OPEs on the AGD of offspring from birth to 4 years.

METHODS

Based on Shanghai-Minhang Birth Cohort Study, pregnant women provided urine samples at a gestational age of 12-16 weeks, which were analyzed for eight OPE metabolites. AGD was measured in offspring at birth and 0.5, 1, and 4 years of age. We used generalized estimating equations (GEE) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models to estimate the associations of prenatal exposure to individual OPE metabolites and OPE mixtures with AGD stratified by sex.

RESULTS

A total of 733 mother-infant pairs were analyzed. Prenatal exposure to diphenyl phosphate and bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate was associated with decreased AGD in boys in GEE models. Bis-(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPP) showed a similar but marginally significant effect. Prenatal exposure to most OPE metabolites was associated with decreased AGD in girls, with the most profound association observed for bis (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEP) and alkyl-OPEs. The OPE mixture was also inversely associated with AGD in both sexes. The single-exposure effects of BKMR models were largely consistent with those observed in the GEE models. In addition, alkyl-OPEs, particularly BBOEP, contributed the most to the decreased AGD in girls, while BCIPP contributed the most to the decreased AGD in boys.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the first human evidence that prenatal exposure to OPEs is associated with decreased AGD in offspring. The magnitude of these effects may vary depending on the structure of OPEs.

Anogenital Distance and Endometriosis: Results of a Case-Control Study

AGD is the distance measured from the anus to the genital tubercle. Recent evidence suggests that a shorter AGD, a sensitive biomarker of the prenatal hormonal environment, could be associated with higher endometriosis risk. However, studies investigating AGD in affected women are scanty. We have set up a case-control study recruiting nulliparous women (aged 18-40 years) with endometriosis between 2017 and 2018. Cases were 90 women with a surgical or with a current nonsurgical diagnosis of endometriosis (n = 45 deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE), and n = 45 ovarian endometrioma (OMA)). Controls were 45 asymptomatic women referring for periodical gynaecological care and without a previous diagnosis of endometriosis. They were matched to cases for age and BMI. For each woman, two measures were obtained using a digital calliper: AGD_AC, from the clitoral surface to the upper verge of the anus, and AGD_AF, from the posterior fourchette to the upper verge of the anus. Each distance was derived from the mean of six measurements acquired from two different gynaecologists. The mean ± SD AGD_AC in women with DIE, OMA and without a diagnosis of endometriosis was 76.0 ± 12.1, 76.1 ± 11.1 and 77.8 ± 11.4 mm, respectively (p = 0.55). The mean ± SD AGD_AF in women with DIE, OMA and without a diagnosis of endometriosis was 22.8 ± 5.0, 21.7 ± 9.0 and 23.7 ± 7.8 mm, respectively (p = 0.38). Our study failed to find an association between AGD and the presence of endometriosis. AGD does not seem to represent a reliable indicator of the presence of endometriosis to be used in clinical practice.

Increasing incidence and spatial hotspots of hospitalized endometriosis in France from 2011 to 2017

Endometriosis is a female hormone-dependent disease, possibly related to endocrine disruptor exposure. We aimed to monitor this disease nationwide in France and analyze spatial trends at a fine scale to explore possible environmental contributing risk factors. We conducted a retrospective national descriptive study from 2011 to 2017 in females aged 10 years old and over, using comprehensive hospital discharge data. Cases were identified using ICD-10 N80 codes and were localized at their municipality of residence. We defined incident cases as the first hospital stay of patients, without a stay in at least the previous 5 years. We performed statistical analyses according to age and type of endometriosis, and we modeled the temporal, spatial and spatiotemporal trends. We identified 207,462 incident cases of all-type hospitalized endometriosis (83,112 for non-adenomyosis cases). The crude incidence rate for the study period was 9.85/10,000 person-years (3.95/10,000 for non-adenomyosis cases). From 2011 to 2017, the risk of all-type endometriosis increased by 8.5% (95% CI: 3.9; 13.4) (by 3.6% (95% CI: 0.6; 6.8) for non-adenomyosis cases). The risk was geographically heterogeneous, with 20 high-risk hotspots, showing similar results for non-adenomyosis cases. Shifting practice patterns, improved awareness and healthcare disparities interlinked with environmental risk factors could explain these trends.

Unveiling the Pathogenesis of Adenomyosis through Animal Models

Background: Adenomyosis is a common gynecological disorder traditionally viewed as “elusive”. Several excellent review papers have been published fairly recently on its pathogenesis, and several theories have been proposed. However, the falsifiability, explanatory power, and predictivity of these theories are often overlooked. Since adenomyosis can occur spontaneously in rodents and many other species, the animal models may help us unveil the pathogenesis of adenomyosis. This review critically tallies experimentally induced models published so far, with a particular focus on their relevance to epidemiological findings, their possible mechanisms of action, and their explanatory and predictive power. Methods: PubMed was exhaustively searched using the phrase “adenomyosis and animal model”, “adenomyosis and experimental model”, “adenomyosis and mouse”, and “adenomyosis and rat”, and the resultant papers were retrieved, carefully read, and the resultant information distilled. All the retrieved papers were then reviewed in a narrative manner. Results: Among all published animal models of adenomyosis, the mouse model of adenomyosis induced by endometrial–myometrial interface disruption (EMID) seems to satisfy the requirements of falsifiability and has the predictive capability and also Hill’s causality criteria. Other theories only partially satisfy Hill’s criteria of causality. In particular, animal models of adenomyosis induced by hyperestrogenism, hyperprolactinemia, or long-term exposure to progestogens without much epidemiological documentation and adenomyosis is usually not the exclusive uterine pathology consequent to those induction procedures. Regardless, uterine disruption appears to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for causing adenomyosis. Conclusions: EMID is, however, unlikely the sole cause for adenomyosis. Future studies, including animal studies, are warranted to understand how and why in utero and/or prenatal exposure to elevated levels of estrogen or estrogenic compounds increases the risk of developing adenomyosis in adulthood, to elucidate whether prolactin plays any role in its pathogenesis, and to identify sufficient condition(s) that cause adenomyosis.