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Cohen RL, Drewes JL, Queen SE, Freeman ZT, Pate KM, Adams RJ, Graham DR, Hutchinson EK. Elucidation of the Central Serotonin Metabolism Pathway in Rhesus Macaques ( Macaca mulatta) with Self-injurious Behavior. Comp Med 2021; 71:466-473. [PMID: 34794530 PMCID: PMC8715763 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-21-000020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Macaques with self-injurious behavior (SIB) have been used as a model of human SIB and have previously been shown to respond to treatments targeting enhancement of central serotonin signaling, whether by supplementation with tryptophan, or by inhibiting synaptic reuptake. Decreased serotonin signaling in the brain has also been implicated in many human psychopathologies including major depression disorder. A disturbance in tryptophan metabolism that moves away from the production of serotonin and toward the production of kynurenine has been proposed as a major etiological factor of depression. We hypothesized that in macaques with SIB, central tryptophan metabolism would be shifted toward kynurenine production, leading to lower central serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). We analyzed tryptophan metabolites in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) of macaques with and without SIB to determine whether and where tryptophan metabolism is altered in affected animals as compared with behaviorally normal controls. We found that macaques with SIB had lower CSF concentrations of serotonin than did behaviorally normal macaques, and that these deficits were inversely correlated with the severity of abnormal behavior. However, our results suggest that this decrease is not due to shifting of the tryptophan metabolic pathway toward kynurenine, as concentrations of kynurenine were also low. Concentrations of IL6 were elevated, suggesting central inflammation. Determining the mechanism by which serotonin function is altered in self-injurious macaques could shed light on novel therapies for SIB and other disorders of serotonin signaling.
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Key Words
- 3hk, 3-hydroxykynurenine
- 5hiaa, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid
- 5-ht, serotonin
- d, depression
- ido, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase enzyme
- mrm, multiple reaction monitoring
- nhps, nonhuman primates
- nsf, no significant findings
- ptsd, post-traumatic stress disorder
- tdo, sd, suicidal depression
- sib, self-injurious behavior
- tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase enzyme
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael L Cohen
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Julia L Drewes
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Suzanne E Queen
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Zachary T Freeman
- Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Kelly Metcalf Pate
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Robert J Adams
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - David R Graham
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
| | - Eric K Hutchinson
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD;,
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Mendoza KA, Stockinger DE, Cukrov MJ, Roberts JA, Hwa GGC. Effects of transdermal mirtazapine on hyporexic rhesus and cynomolgus macaques (Macaca mulatta and Macaca fascicularis). J Med Primatol 2021; 50:128-133. [PMID: 33528049 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hyporexia and weight loss are important indicators of physical and psychological well-being in macaque colonies. An FDA-approved transdermal formulated Mirtazapine (MTZ) shows effectiveness in managing feline hyporexia. This study sought to determine its effectiveness as an appetite stimulant in macaques. METHODS Fourteen macaques with idiopathic hyporexia, intractable to conventional management were treated with transdermal MTZ (0.5 mg/kg) topically administered to aural pinnae once daily for 14 days. Qualitative food consumption was monitored daily for 6 months. Body weights were collected prior to treatment, every 2 weeks for the first 6 weeks, 10 weeks, and 6 months post-treatment. RESULTS Transdermal MTZ significantly reduced the frequency of hyporexia during treatment and monthly for 6 months. No significant increase in weight noted until approximately 6 months post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS Results from this study indicate that a short course of transdermal MTZ is an effective way to increase food consumption in macaques chronically.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Diane E Stockinger
- Valley Biosystems, West Sacramento, CA, USA.,California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey A Roberts
- Valley Biosystems, West Sacramento, CA, USA.,California National Primate Research Center, Davis, CA, USA
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Ramsey J, Martin EC, Purcell OM, Lee KM, MacLean AG. Self-injurious behaviours in rhesus macaques: Potential glial mechanisms. JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY RESEARCH : JIDR 2018; 62:1008-1017. [PMID: 30450801 PMCID: PMC6385863 DOI: 10.1111/jir.12558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Self-injurious behaviour (SIB) can be classified as intentional, direct injuring of body tissue usually without suicidal intent. In its non-suicidal form it is commonly seen as a clinical sign of borderline personality disorder, autism, PTSD, depression, and anxiety affecting a wide range of ages and conditions. In rhesus macaques SIB is most commonly manifested through hair plucking, self-biting, self-hitting, and head banging. SIB in the form of self-biting is observed in approximately 5-15% of individually housed monkeys. Recently, glial cells are becoming recognised as key players in regulating behaviours. METHOD The goal of this study was to determine the role of glial activation, including astrocytes, in macaques that had displayed SIB. To this end, we performed immunohistochemistry and next generation sequence of brain tissues from rhesus macaques with SIB. RESULTS Our studies showed increased vimentin, but not nestin, expression on astrocytes of macaques displaying SIB. Initial RNA Seq analyses indicate activation of pathways involved in tissue remodelling, neuroinflammation and cAMP signalling. CONCLUSIONS Glia are most probably activated in primates with self-injury, and are therefore potential novel targets for therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Ramsey
- Tulane Program in Neuroscience, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Elizabeth C. Martin
- Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Olivia M. Purcell
- Tulane Program in Neuroscience, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Kim M. Lee
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433
- Tulane Program in Biomedical Science, Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Andrew G. MacLean
- Tulane Program in Neuroscience, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433
- Tulane Program in Biomedical Science, Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Tulane Center for Aging, Tulane University New Orleans, LA 70112
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Stanwicks LL, Hamel AF, Novak MA. Rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta) displaying self-injurious behavior show more sleep disruption than controls. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2017; 197:62-67. [PMID: 29276322 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a pathology observed in both humans and animals. In humans, SIB has been linked to various mental health conditions that are also associated with significant sleep disruption. In rhesus macaques, SIB consists of self-directed biting which can range from mild skin abrasions to wounds requiring veterinary care. However, only one study suggests possible sleep disruption in macaques with SIB. We evaluated sleep disruption using a noninvasive system (infra-red camera and a video surveillance program) which created videos for every movement over the nighttime hours. Nighttime activity was examined in 13 macaques (three females) of which six were classified as having SIB (one female). Each monkey was studied for a total of 6 nights spanning a period of 4 months. Measures included total movement time (TMT), time moving in the first hour (HR1), time moving in the last hour (HR11), and number of videos <10 secs, ≥10 secs, and ≥30 secs in length. Overall, SIB monkeys had higher TMT (p < 0.01), higher HR1 (p<0.001), and generated more videos ≥10 secs (p < 0.01) and ≥30 secs (p < 0.01). Thus, SIB monkeys showed significant sleep disruption. A four-fold difference between SIB and control monkeys in the ≥30 secs videos revealed many more significant awakenings in the SIB group. Overall higher nighttime activity, in the first hour but not in the last hour, is consistent with sleep-onset insomnia in humans. Whether increased nighttime activity contributes to the SIB condition during the day or, conversely, SIB causes higher nighttime activity remains undetermined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren L Stanwicks
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA. 01003
| | - Amanda F Hamel
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA. 01003
| | - Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA. 01003
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Martin AL. The primatologist as a behavioral engineer. Am J Primatol 2017; 79:1-10. [PMID: 26539749 PMCID: PMC7427841 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Revised: 09/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The field of primate behavior management has had only limited success in preventing and treating abnormal behaviors, such as stereotypy and self-injury, in captive non-human primates (NHP). In contrast, applied behavior analysts have had great success in treating similar topographies of behavior in human clinical settings. By adapting and adopting the behavioral principles and methodologies commonly used by applied behavior analysts, primatologists may be able to develop more effective ways to analyze, reduce, and prevent these aberrant behaviors in NHP. This article reviews studies that have used behavior analytic techniques to successfully address problem behaviors in NHP. Additionally, relevant literature from the field of applied behavior analysis is reviewed to illustrate how adopting a theoretical framework that emphasizes the determination of the underlying operant functions of behavior could lead to new behavioral technologies and advance the field of captive primate management. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22500, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison L. Martin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University,
Atlanta, Georgia
- Center for Conservation and Behavior, School of Psychology,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
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Peterson EJ, Worlein JM, Lee GH, Dettmer AM, Varner EK, Novak MA. Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with self-injurious behavior show less behavioral anxiety during the human intruder test. Am J Primatol 2016; 79:1-8. [PMID: 27286311 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Self-injurious behavior (SIB) has been linked to anxiety in the human literature, but relatively few studies have explored this link in rhesus macaques. A widely used behavioral assessment of anxiety, the human intruder test (HIT), employs the mildly stressful stimulus of an unfamiliar experimenter to assess anxious behavior in macaques. The HIT was conducted on 59 (20 male) laboratory housed rhesus macaques, 30 with a record of SIB (10 male). If monkeys with SIB have a more anxious phenotype, they should show stronger reactions to the HIT. However, contrary to our predictions, monkeys with SIB did not show higher levels of anxious behavior compared to controls. They spent significantly less time showing anxious behavior and displayed little aggression in response to the stare of the intruder. SIB and control monkeys did not differ in a range score (number of unique behaviors expressed per phase); however, SIB monkeys had a lower change score (total number of behaviors expressed including repetitions) than controls. In general, monkeys that paced regardless of SIB status, showed a reduction in pacing when the intruder entered the room. Possible explanations for the failure of SIB monkeys to show increased anxiety in the HIT include greater exposure of SIB monkeys to unfamiliar humans because of their condition, evidence for a subtype of SIB which is not anxiety related, and/or the presence of comorbid depressive-like symptoms. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22569, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Peterson
- Neuroscience and Behavior Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Julie M Worlein
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Grace H Lee
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Amanda M Dettmer
- Laboratory of Comparative Ethology, NIH Animal Center, NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Poolesville, Maryland
| | - Elana K Varner
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
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Polanco A. A Tinbergian review of self-injurious behaviors in laboratory rhesus macaques. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Shapira J, Birenboim R, Shoshani M, Abdel-Kader A, Behar O, Moskovitz M, Ben-Attar Y, Chaushu S, Becker A. Overcoming the oral aspects of -self-mutilation: description of a method. SPECIAL CARE IN DENTISTRY 2016; 36:282-7. [PMID: 27105292 DOI: 10.1111/scd.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a serious and chronic condition frequently seen in special needs populations, affecting 10% to 17% of individuals diagnosed with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities. A 2.5-year-old infant with SIB, whose presenting symptoms were severe tongue and lip lacerations accompanied by much hemorrhage, is presented here to illustrate the problem and to show how this may be prevented. MATERIALS AND METHODS An appliance is described which effectively limits the damage caused by SIB and permits rapid healing of existing injuries. RESULTS The method provides for a stable, retentive, and comfortable device on the infant's undererupted and largely nonretentive crowns of the deciduous teeth as well as for all permanent teeth in children, adolescents, and adults. CONCLUSIONS The appliance has been successfully employed for the past 10 years in patients with SIB who have attended for treatment in the Special Needs Clinic in our Department.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Shapira
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Ravit Birenboim
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Michael Shoshani
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arin Abdel-Kader
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ofra Behar
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Moti Moskovitz
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yaniv Ben-Attar
- Dental Laboratory, Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Stella Chaushu
- Department of Orthodontics, Hebrew University - Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Adrian Becker
- Department of Orthodontics, Hebrew University - Hadassah School of Dental Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
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Meyer JS, Hamel AF. Models of stress in nonhuman primates and their relevance for human psychopathology and endocrine dysfunction. ILAR J 2014; 55:347-60. [PMID: 25225311 PMCID: PMC4240440 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilu023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Stressful life events have been linked to the onset of severe psychopathology and endocrine dysfunction in many patients. Moreover, vulnerability to the later development of such disorders can be increased by stress or adversity during development (e.g., childhood neglect, abuse, or trauma). This review discusses the methodological features and results of various models of stress in nonhuman primates in the context of their potential relevance for human psychopathology and endocrine dysfunction, particularly mood disorders and dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system. Such models have typically examined the effects of stress on the animals' behavior, endocrine function (primarily the HPA and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal systems), and, in some cases, immune status. Manipulations such as relocation and/or removal of an animal from its current social group or, alternatively, formation of a new social group can have adverse effects on all of these outcome measures that may be either transient or more persistent depending on the species, sex, and other experimental conditions. Social primates may also experience significant stress associated with their rank in the group's dominance hierarchy. Finally, stress during prenatal development or during the early postnatal period may have long-lasting neurobiological and endocrine effects that manifest in an altered ability to cope behaviorally and physiologically with later challenges. Whereas early exposure to severe stress usually results in deficient coping abilities, certain kinds of milder stressors can promote subsequent resilience in the animal. We conclude that studies of stress in nonhuman primates can model many features of stress exposure in human populations and that such studies can play a valuable role in helping to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the role of stress in human psychopathology and endocrine dysfunction.
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