1
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Hargrove T, Lamb DC, Wawrzak Z, Hull M, Kelly SL, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Identification of Potent and Selective Inhibitors of Acanthamoeba: Structural Insights into Sterol 14α-Demethylase as a Key Drug Target. J Med Chem 2024; 67:7443-7457. [PMID: 38683753 PMCID: PMC11089504 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba are free-living pathogenic protozoa that cause blinding keratitis, disseminated infection, and granulomatous amebic encephalitis, which is generally fatal. The development of efficient and safe drugs is a critical unmet need. Acanthamoeba sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) is an essential enzyme of the sterol biosynthetic pathway. Repurposing antifungal azoles for amoebic infections has been reported, but their inhibitory effects on Acanthamoeba CYP51 enzymatic activity have not been studied. Here, we report catalytic properties, inhibition, and structural characterization of CYP51 from Acanthamoeba castellanii. The enzyme displays a 100-fold substrate preference for obtusifoliol over lanosterol, supporting the plant-like cycloartenol-based pathway in the pathogen. The strongest inhibition was observed with voriconazole (1 h IC50 0.45 μM), VT1598 (0.25 μM), and VT1161 (0.20 μM). The crystal structures of A. castellanii CYP51 with bound VT1161 (2.24 Å) and without an inhibitor (1.95 Å), presented here, can be used in the development of azole-based scaffolds to achieve optimal amoebicidal effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana
Y. Hargrove
- Department
of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School
of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - David C. Lamb
- Faculty
of Medicine, Health and Life Science, Swansea
University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- Synchrotron
Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Marcus Hull
- Faculty
of Medicine, Health and Life Science, Swansea
University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - Steven L. Kelly
- Faculty
of Medicine, Health and Life Science, Swansea
University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - F. Peter Guengerich
- Department
of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School
of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Galina I. Lepesheva
- Department
of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School
of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Vanderbilt
Institute of Chemical Biology, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Center
for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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2
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García-Torres I, De la Mora-De la Mora I, López-Velázquez G, Cabrera N, Flores-López LA, Becker I, Herrera-López J, Hernández R, Pérez-Montfort R, Enríquez-Flores S. Repurposing of rabeprazole as an anti- Trypanosoma cruzi drug that targets cellular triosephosphate isomerase. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2023; 38:2231169. [PMID: 37401012 PMCID: PMC10351538 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2023.2231169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of American trypanosomiasis, which mainly affects populations in Latin America. Benznidazole is used to control the disease, with severe effects in patients receiving this chemotherapy. Previous studies have demonstrated the inhibition of triosephosphate isomerase from T. cruzi, but cellular enzyme inhibition has yet to be established. This study demonstrates that rabeprazole inhibits both cell viability and triosephosphate isomerase activity in T. cruzi epimastigotes. Our results show that rabeprazole has an IC50 of 0.4 µM, which is 14.5 times more effective than benznidazole. Additionally, we observed increased levels of methyl-glyoxal and advanced glycation end products after the inhibition of cellular triosephosphate isomerase by rabeprazole. Finally, we demonstrate that the inactivation mechanisms of rabeprazole on triosephosphate isomerase of T. cruzi can be achieved through the derivatization of three of its four cysteine residues. These results indicate that rabeprazole is a promising candidate against American trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itzhel García-Torres
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, CDMX, México
| | | | | | - Nallely Cabrera
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, México
| | - Luis Antonio Flores-López
- CONAHCYT Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, CDMX, México
| | - Ingeborg Becker
- Centro de Medicina Tropical, Unidad de Investigación en Medicina Experimental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, México
| | - Juliana Herrera-López
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, México
| | - Roberto Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, México
| | - Ruy Pérez-Montfort
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Estructural, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CDMX, México
| | - Sergio Enríquez-Flores
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, CDMX, México
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3
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Roy D, Thakare RP, Chopra S, Panda G. Aromatic or Hetero-aromatic Directly Attached Tri and Tetrasubstituted Methanes: New Chemical Entities as Anti-Infectives. Curr Med Chem 2023; 30:974-998. [PMID: 36017850 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220823111812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tri and Tetra-substituted Methanes (TRSMs) are a significant structural motif in many approved drugs and prodrugs. There is increasing use of TRSM units in medicinal chemistry, and many derivatives are specifically designed to make drug-target interactions through new chemical space around TRSM moiety. In this perspective, we describe synthetic challenges for accessing a range of functionalized selective TRSMs and their molecular mechanism of action, especially as anti-infectives. Natural anti-infectives like (+)-Bionectin A, B, (+)-Gliocladine C, Balanocarpol having TRSMs selectively and effectively bind to target proteins in comparison to planar motif having more sp2 carbons perhaps due to conformation which reduces the penalty for conformational entropy with the enhancement of three-dimensionality. Properties of repurposed TRSMs like Almitrine, Ifenprodil, Baricitinib and Remdesivir with their recent progress in COVID-19 therapeutics with their mode of action are also delineated. This perspective is expected to deliver a user guide and reference source for scientists, researchers and academicians in pursuing newly designed TRSMs as therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deblina Roy
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, Gautam Panda, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Ritesh P Thakare
- Division of Microbiology, Sidharth Chopra, CSIRCentral Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow 226031, UP, India
| | - Sidharth Chopra
- Division of Microbiology, Sidharth Chopra, CSIRCentral Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Gautam Panda
- Medicinal & Process Chemistry Division, Gautam Panda, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow 226031, UP, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
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4
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Xanthine Analogs Suppress Trypanosoma cruzi Infection In Vitro Using PDEs as Targets. MICROBIOLOGY RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/microbiolres13040052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), the causative agent of Chagas disease, has infected 6 million people, putting 70 million people at risk worldwide. Presently, very limited drugs are available, and these have severe side effects. Hence, there is an urgency to delve into other pathways and targets for novel drugs. Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) expresses a number of different cyclic AMP (cAMP)-specific phosphodiesterases (PDEs). cAMP is one of the key regulators of mammalian cell proliferation and differentiation, and it also plays an important role in T. cruzi growth. Very few studies have demonstrated the important role of cyclic nucleotide-specific PDEs in T. cruzi’s survival. T. cruzi phosphodiesterase C (TcrPDEC) has been proposed as a potential new drug target for treating Chagas disease. In the current study, we screen several analogs of xanthine for potency against trypomastigote and amastigote growth in vitro using three different strains of T. cruzi (Tulahuen, Y and CA-1/CL72). One of the potent analogs, GVK14, has been shown to inhibit all three strains of amastigotes in host cells as well as axenic cultures. In conclusion, xanthine analogs that inhibit T. cruzi PDE may provide novel alternative therapeutic options for Chagas disease.
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5
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Dadashpour S, Ghobadi E, Emami S. Chemical and biological aspects of posaconazole as a classic antifungal agent with non-classical properties: highlighting a tetrahydrofuran-based drug toward generation of new drugs. Med Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-022-02901-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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6
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Hargrove TY, Wawrzak Z, Rachakonda G, Nes WD, Villalta F, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Relaxed Substrate Requirements of Sterol 14α-Demethylase from Naegleria fowleri Are Accompanied by Resistance to Inhibition. J Med Chem 2021; 64:17511-17522. [PMID: 34842434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Naegleria fowleri is the protozoan pathogen that causes primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), with the death rate exceeding 97%. The amoeba makes sterols and can be targeted by sterol biosynthesis inhibitors. Here, we characterized N. fowleri sterol 14-demethylase, including catalytic properties and inhibition by clinical antifungal drugs and experimental substituted azoles with favorable pharmacokinetics and low toxicity. None of them inhibited the enzyme stoichiometrically. The highest potencies were displayed by posaconazole (IC50 = 0.69 μM) and two of our compounds (IC50 = 1.3 and 0.35 μM). Because both these compounds penetrate the brain with concentrations reaching minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values in an N. fowleri cellular assay, we report them as potential drug candidates for PAM. The 2.1 Å crystal structure, in complex with the strongest inhibitor, provides an explanation connecting the enzyme weaker substrate specificity with lower sensitivity to inhibition. It also provides insight into the enzyme/ligand molecular recognition process and suggests directions for the design of more potent inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Y Hargrove
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee 37208, United States
| | - W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, United States
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee 37208, United States
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States.,Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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7
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Abdelhameed A, Feng M, Joice AC, Zywot EM, Jin Y, La Rosa C, Liao X, Meeds HL, Kim Y, Li J, McElroy CA, Wang MZ, Werbovetz KA. Synthesis and Antileishmanial Evaluation of Arylimidamide-Azole Hybrids Containing a Phenoxyalkyl Linker. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:1901-1922. [PMID: 33538576 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Due to the limitations of existing medications, there is a critical need for new drugs to treat visceral leishmaniasis. Since arylimidamides and antifungal azoles both show oral activity in murine visceral leishmaniasis models, a molecular hybridization approach was employed where arylimidamide and azole groups were separated by phenoxyalkyl linkers in an attempt to capitalize on the favorable antileishmanial properties of both series. Among the target compounds synthesized, a greater antileishmanial potency against intracellular Leishmania donovani was observed as the linker length increased from two to eight carbons and when an imidazole ring was employed as the terminal group compared to a 1,2,4-triazole group. Compound 24c (N-(4-((8-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)octyl)oxy)-2-isopropoxyphenyl) picolinimidamide) displayed activity against L. donovani intracellular amastigotes with an IC50 value of 0.53 μM. When tested in a murine visceral leishmaniasis model, compound 24c at a dose of 75 mg/kg/day p.o. for five consecutive days resulted in a modest 33% decrease in liver parasitemia compared to the control group, indicating that further optimization of these molecules is needed. While potent hybrid compounds bearing an imidazole terminal group were also strong inhibitors of recombinant CYP51 from L. donovani, as assessed by a fluorescence-based assay, additional targets are likely to play an important role in the antileishmanial action of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Abdelhameed
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Mei Feng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - April C. Joice
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Emilia M. Zywot
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Yiru Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Chris La Rosa
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Xiaoping Liao
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Heidi L. Meeds
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Yena Kim
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Junan Li
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Craig A. McElroy
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Michael Zhuo Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Karl A. Werbovetz
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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8
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Peixoto JF, Oliveira ADS, Monteiro PQ, Gonçalves-Oliveira LF, Andrade-Neto VV, Ferreira VF, Souza-Silva F, Alves CR. In Silico Insights into the Mechanism of Action of Epoxy-α-Lapachone and Epoxymethyl-Lawsone in Leishmania spp. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123537. [PMID: 34200517 PMCID: PMC8229338 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Epoxy-α-lapachone (Lap) and Epoxymethyl-lawsone (Law) are oxiranes derived from Lapachol and have been shown to be promising drugs for Leishmaniases treatment. Although, it is known the action spectrum of both compounds affect the Leishmania spp. multiplication, there are gaps in the molecular binding details of target enzymes related to the parasite’s physiology. Molecular docking assays simulations were performed using DockThor server to predict the preferred orientation of both compounds to form stable complexes with key enzymes of metabolic pathway, electron transport chain, and lipids metabolism of Leishmania spp. This study showed the hit rates of both compounds interacting with lanosterol C-14 demethylase (−8.4 kcal/mol to −7.4 kcal/mol), cytochrome c (−10.2 kcal/mol to −8.8 kcal/mol), and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (−8.5 kcal/mol to −7.5 kcal/mol) according to Leishmania spp. and assessed compounds. The set of molecular evidence reinforces the potential of both compounds as multi-target drugs for interrupt the network interactions between parasite enzymes, which can lead to a better efficacy of drugs for the treatment of leishmaniases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Figueiredo Peixoto
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil; (J.F.P.); (A.d.S.O.); or (P.Q.M.); (L.F.G.-O.)
| | - Adriane da Silva Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil; (J.F.P.); (A.d.S.O.); or (P.Q.M.); (L.F.G.-O.)
| | - Patrícia Queiroz Monteiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil; (J.F.P.); (A.d.S.O.); or (P.Q.M.); (L.F.G.-O.)
| | - Luiz Filipe Gonçalves-Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil; (J.F.P.); (A.d.S.O.); or (P.Q.M.); (L.F.G.-O.)
| | - Valter Viana Andrade-Neto
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanossomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil;
| | - Vitor Francisco Ferreira
- Departamento de Tecnologia Farmacêutica, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói 24241-002, Brazil;
| | - Franklin Souza-Silva
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
- Faculdade de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Iguaçu, Avenida Abílio Augusto Távora, 2134, Dom Rodrigo, Nova Iguaçu CEP 26260-045, Brazil
- Correspondence: (F.S.-S.); (C.R.A.)
| | - Carlos Roberto Alves
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular e Doenças Endêmicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil; (J.F.P.); (A.d.S.O.); or (P.Q.M.); (L.F.G.-O.)
- Correspondence: (F.S.-S.); (C.R.A.)
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9
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Mansoldo FRP, Carta F, Angeli A, Cardoso VDS, Supuran CT, Vermelho AB. Chagas Disease: Perspectives on the Past and Present and Challenges in Drug Discovery. Molecules 2020; 25:E5483. [PMID: 33238613 PMCID: PMC7700143 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25225483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease still has no effective treatment option for all of its phases despite being discovered more than 100 years ago. The development of commercial drugs has been stagnating since the 1960s, a fact that sheds light on the question of how drug discovery research has progressed and taken advantage of technological advances. Could it be that technological advances have not yet been sufficient to resolve this issue or is there a lack of protocol, validation and standardization of the data generated by different research teams? This work presents an overview of commercial drugs and those that have been evaluated in studies and clinical trials so far. A brief review is made of recent target-based and phenotypic studies based on the search for molecules with anti-Trypanosoma cruzi action. It also discusses how proteochemometric (PCM) modeling and microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) can help in the case of the lack of a 3D protein structure; more specifically, Trypanosoma cruzi carbonic anhydrase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Raposo Passos Mansoldo
- BIOINOVAR-Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (F.R.P.M.); (V.d.S.C.)
| | - Fabrizio Carta
- Neurofarba Department, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy; (F.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Andrea Angeli
- Neurofarba Department, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy; (F.C.); (A.A.)
- Centre of Advanced Research in Bionanoconjugates and Biopolymers Department, “Petru Poni” Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | - Veronica da Silva Cardoso
- BIOINOVAR-Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (F.R.P.M.); (V.d.S.C.)
| | - Claudiu T. Supuran
- Neurofarba Department, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Sezione di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy; (F.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Alane Beatriz Vermelho
- BIOINOVAR-Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Góes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (F.R.P.M.); (V.d.S.C.)
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10
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History of the development of antifungal azoles: A review on structures, SAR, and mechanism of action. Bioorg Chem 2020; 104:104240. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.104240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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11
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The role of imidazole and benzimidazole heterocycles in Chagas disease: A review. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 206:112692. [PMID: 32818869 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The haemoflagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD), a potentially life-threatening disease. Little by little, remarkable progress has been achieved against CD, although it is still not enough. In the absence of effective chemotherapy, many research groups, organizations and pharmaceutical companies have focused their efforts on the search for compounds that could become viable drugs against CD. Within the wide variety of reported derivatives, this review summarizes and provides a global vision of the situation of those compounds that include broadly studied heterocycles in their structures due to their applications in medicinal chemistry: imidazole and benzimidazole rings. Therefore, the intention of this work is to present a compilation, as much as possible, of all the reported information, regarding these imidazole and benzimidazole derivatives against T. cruzi, as a starting point for future researchers in this field.
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12
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de Souza ML, Gonzaga da Costa LA, Silva EDO, de Sousa ALMD, Dos Santos WM, Rolim Neto PJ. Recent strategies for the development of oral medicines for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Drug Dev Res 2020; 81:803-814. [PMID: 32394440 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Considered prevalent in many countries on five continents, especially in low-income regions, leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease classified by World Health Organization as one of the diseases for which the development of new treatments is a priority. It is an infectious disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania, whose species may cause different clinical manifestations, such as cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Treatment is exclusively by drug therapy, as it has not been possible to develop vaccines yet. Currently available drugs are not fully effective in all cases; they have parenteral administration and exhibit a number of serious and very common adverse effects. The only oral drug available is expensive and it is not available in many endemic countries. Injectable administration is the main problem of treatments, since it requires patients to go to health centers, hospitalization and professional administration, which are conditions that are not adapted to the reality of the poverty conditions of patients with the disease. In this context, the development of an oral medicine has become a focus as it may solve many of these issues. Based on this scenario, this review aimed to investigate which therapeutic alternatives have been studied for the development of oral drugs directed to the treatment of human VL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myla Lôbo de Souza
- Laboratory of Technology of Medicines, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Emerson de Oliveira Silva
- Laboratory of Technology of Medicines, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Widson Michael Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Technology of Medicines, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Pedro José Rolim Neto
- Laboratory of Technology of Medicines, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
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13
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Mosquillo MF, Smircich P, Ciganda M, Lima A, Gambino D, Garat B, Pérez-Díaz L. Comparative high-throughput analysis of the Trypanosoma cruzi response to organometallic compounds. Metallomics 2020; 12:813-828. [DOI: 10.1039/d0mt00030b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
An in-depth, comparative look at the effects of two structurally related organometallic Pd and Pt compounds on the global gene expression pattern of T. cruzi epimastigotes. This parasite is the causative agent of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Florencia Mosquillo
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares
- Facultad de Ciencias
- Universidad de la República
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
| | - Pablo Smircich
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares
- Facultad de Ciencias
- Universidad de la República
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
| | | | - Analía Lima
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
- Unidad de Bioquímica y Proteómica Analíticas
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo
| | - Dinorah Gambino
- Área Química Inorgánica
- Facultad de Química
- Universidad de la República
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
| | - Beatriz Garat
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares
- Facultad de Ciencias
- Universidad de la República
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
| | - Leticia Pérez-Díaz
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Moleculares
- Facultad de Ciencias
- Universidad de la República
- Montevideo
- Uruguay
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14
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Friggeri L, Hargrove TY, Wawrzak Z, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Validation of Human Sterol 14α-Demethylase (CYP51) Druggability: Structure-Guided Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Stoichiometric, Functionally Irreversible Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2019; 62:10391-10401. [PMID: 31663733 PMCID: PMC6881533 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylases (CYP51) are the cytochrome P450 enzymes required for biosynthesis of sterols in eukaryotes, the major targets for antifungal agents and prospective targets for treatment of protozoan infections. Human CYP51 could be and, for a while, was considered as a potential target for cholesterol-lowering drugs (the role that is now played by statins, which are also in clinical trials for cancer) but revealed high intrinsic resistance to inhibition. While microbial CYP51 enzymes are often inhibited stoichiometrically and functionally irreversibly, no strong inhibitors have been identified for human CYP51. In this study, we used comparative structure/functional analysis of CYP51 orthologs from different biological kingdoms and employed site-directed mutagenesis to elucidate the molecular basis for the resistance of the human enzyme to inhibition and also designed, synthesized, and characterized new compounds. Two of them inhibit human CYP51 functionally irreversibly with their potency approaching the potencies of azole drugs currently used to inhibit microbial CYP51.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Friggeri
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Tatiana Y. Hargrove
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - F. Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Galina I. Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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15
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Villalta F, Rachakonda G. Advances in preclinical approaches to Chagas disease drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:1161-1174. [PMID: 31411084 PMCID: PMC6779130 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1652593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Chagas disease affects 8-10 million people worldwide, mainly in Latin America. The current therapy for Chagas disease is limited to nifurtimox and benznidazole, which are effective in treating only the acute phase of the disease but with severe side effects. Therefore, there is an unmet need for new drugs and for the exploration of innovative approaches which may lead to the discovery of new effective and safe drugs for its treatment. Areas covered: The authors report and discuss recent approaches including structure-based design that have led to the discovery of new promising small molecule candidates for Chagas disease which affect prime targets that intervene in the sterol pathway of T. cruzi. Other trypanosome targets, phenotypic screening, the use of artificial intelligence and the challenges with Chagas disease drug discovery are also discussed. Expert opinion: The application of recent scientific innovations to the field of Chagas disease have led to the discovery of new promising drug candidates for Chagas disease. Phenotypic screening brought new hits and opportunities for drug discovery. Artificial intelligence also has the potential to accelerate drug discovery in Chagas disease and further research into this is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
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16
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Reigada C, Sayé M, Valera-Vera E, Miranda MR, Pereira CA. Repurposing of terconazole as an anti Trypanosoma cruzi agent. Heliyon 2019; 5:e01947. [PMID: 31211266 PMCID: PMC6562323 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a parasitic infection endemic in Latin America. Currently there are no effective treatments for the chronic phase of the disease, when most patients are diagnosed, therefore the development of new drugs is a priority area. Several triazoles, used as fungicides, exhibit trypanocidal activity both in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism of action of such drugs, both in fungi and in T. cruzi, relies in the inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis affecting the cell viability and growth. Among them, terconazole was the first triazole antifungal drug for human use. In this work, the trypanocidal activity of terconazole was evaluated using in vitro assays. In epimastigotes of two parasites strains from different discrete typing units (Y and Dm28c) the calculated IC50 were 25.7 μM and 21.9 μM, respectively. In trypomastigotes and amastigotes (the clinically relevant life-stages of T. cruzi) a higher drug susceptibility was observed with IC50 values of 4.6 μM and 5.9 μM, respectively. Finally, the molecular docking simulations suggest that terconazole inhibits the T. cruzi cytochrome P450 14-α-demethylase, interacting in a similar way that other triazole drugs. Drug repurposing to Chagas disease treatment is one of the recommended approach according to the criterion of international health organizations for their application in neglected diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Reigada
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Melisa Sayé
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Edward Valera-Vera
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana R Miranda
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Claudio A Pereira
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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17
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Stevanovic S, Sencanski M, Danel M, Menendez C, Belguedj R, Bouraiou A, Nikolic K, Cojean S, Loiseau PM, Glisic S, Baltas M, García-Sosa AT. Synthesis, In Silico, and In Vitro Evaluation of Anti-Leishmanial Activity of Oxadiazoles and Indolizine Containing Compounds Flagged against Anti-Targets. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24071282. [PMID: 30986947 PMCID: PMC6480966 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24071282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the lack of approved vaccines against human leishmaniasis and the limitations of the current chemotherapy inducing side effects and drug resistance, development of new, effective chemotherapeutic agents is essential. This study describes the synthesis of a series of novel oxadiazoles and indolizine-containing compounds. The compounds were screened in silico using an EIIP/AQVN filter followed by ligand-based virtual screening and molecular docking to parasite arginase. Top hits were further screened versus human arginase and finally against an anti-target battery to tag their possible interactions with proteins essential for the metabolism and clearance of many substances. Eight candidate compounds were selected for further experimental testing. The results show measurable in vitro anti-leishmanial activity for three compounds. One compound with an IC50 value of 2.18 µM on Leishmania donovani intramacrophage amastigotes is clearly better positioned than the others as an interesting molecular template for further development of new anti-leishmanial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Strahinja Stevanovic
- Laboratory for Bioinformatics and Computational Chemistry, Institute of Nuclear Sciences VINCA, University of Belgrade, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Milan Sencanski
- Laboratory for Bioinformatics and Computational Chemistry, Institute of Nuclear Sciences VINCA, University of Belgrade, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Mathieu Danel
- ITAV, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, 31062 Toulouse, France.
| | - Christophe Menendez
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Toulouse, UPS, CNRS UMR 5068, LSPCMIB, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d'Intérêt Biologique, LSPCMIB, UMR-5068, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
| | - Roumaissa Belguedj
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Toulouse, UPS, CNRS UMR 5068, LSPCMIB, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d'Intérêt Biologique, LSPCMIB, UMR-5068, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
- Unité de Recherche de Chimie de l'Environnement et Moléculaire Structurale, Université Frères Mentouri, Route de Ain El Bey, 25000 Constantine, Algeria.
| | - Abdelmalek Bouraiou
- Unité de Recherche de Chimie de l'Environnement et Moléculaire Structurale, Université Frères Mentouri, Route de Ain El Bey, 25000 Constantine, Algeria.
| | - Katarina Nikolic
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Sandrine Cojean
- Antiparasitic Chemotherapy, UMR 8076 CNRS BioCIS, Faculty of Pharmacy Université Paris-Sud, Rue Jean-Baptiste Clément, F 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France.
| | - Philippe M Loiseau
- Antiparasitic Chemotherapy, UMR 8076 CNRS BioCIS, Faculty of Pharmacy Université Paris-Sud, Rue Jean-Baptiste Clément, F 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France.
| | - Sanja Glisic
- Laboratory for Bioinformatics and Computational Chemistry, Institute of Nuclear Sciences VINCA, University of Belgrade, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Michel Baltas
- Department of Chemistry, Université de Toulouse, UPS, CNRS UMR 5068, LSPCMIB, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physico-Chimie de Molécules d'Intérêt Biologique, LSPCMIB, UMR-5068, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
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18
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In vitro evaluation of arylsubstituted imidazoles derivatives as antiprotozoal agents and docking studies on sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) from Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania infantum, and Trypanosoma brucei. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:1533-1548. [PMID: 30903349 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06206-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need to discover and develop new drugs to combat parasitic diseases as Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi), sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma brucei), and leishmaniasis (Leishmania ssp.). These diseases are considered among the 13 most unattended diseases worldwide according to the WHO. In the present work, the synthesis of 14 arylsubstituted imidazoles and its molecular docking onto sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) was executed. In addition, the compounds, antiprotozoal activity against T. brucei, T. cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, and Leishmania infantum was evaluated. In vitro antiparasitic results of the arylsubstituted imidazoles against T. brucei, T. cruzi, T.b. rhodesiense, and L. infantum indicated that all samples from arylsubstituted imidazole compounds presented interesting antiparasitic activity to various extent. The ligands 5a, 5c, 5e, 5f, 5g, 5i, and 5j exhibited strong activity against T. brucei, T. cruzi, T.b. rhodesiense, and L. infantum with IC50 values ranging from 0.86 to 10.23 μM. Most samples were cytotoxic against MRC-5 cell lines (1.12 < CC50 < 51.09 μM) and only ligand 5c showed a good selectivity against all tested parasites. According to the results of the molecular docking, the aromatic substituents in positions 1, 4, and 5 have mainly stabilizing hydrophobic interactions with the enzyme matrix, while the oxygen from NO2, SO3H, and OH groups interacts with the Fe2+ ion of the Heme group.
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19
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Guedes-da-Silva FH, Batista DDGJ, Da Silva CF, Pavão BP, Batista MM, Moreira OC, Souza LRQ, Britto C, Rachakonda G, Villalta F, Lepesheva GI, Soeiro MDNC. Successful Aspects of the Coadministration of Sterol 14α-Demethylase Inhibitor VFV and Benznidazole in Experimental Mouse Models of Chagas Disease Caused by the Drug-Resistant Strain of Trypanosoma cruzi. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:365-371. [PMID: 30625275 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Up to now, no vaccines are available for Chagas disease, and the current therapy is largely unsatisfactory. Novel imidazole-based scaffolds of protozoan sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) inhibitors have demonstrated potent antiparasitic activity with no acute toxicity. Presently our aim was to investigate the effectiveness of the experimental 14α-demethylase inhibitor VFV in the mouse models of Trypanosoma cruzi infection using a naturally drug-resistant Colombiana strain, under monotherapy and in association with the reference drug, benznidazole (Bz). The treatment with VFV resulted in complete parasitemia suppression and 100% animal survival when administered orally (given in 10% DMSO plus 5% Arabic gum) at 25 mg/kg (bid) for 60 days. However, as parasite relapse was found using VFV alone under this treatment scheme, the coadministration of VFV with Bz was assayed giving simultaneously (for 60 days, bid) by oral route, under two different drug vehicles (10% DMSO plus 5% Gum Arabic with or without 3% Tween 80). All tested mice groups resulted in >99.9% of parasitemia decrease and 100% animal survival. qPCR analysis performed on cyclophosphamide immunosuppressed mice revealed that, although presenting lack of cure, VFV given as monotherapy was 14-fold more active than Bz, and the coadministration of Bz plus VFV (given simultaneously, using 10% DMSO plus 5% Gum Arabic as vehicle) resulted in 106-fold lower blood parasitism as compared to the monotherapy of Bz. Another interesting finding was the parasitological cure in 70% of the animals treated with Bz and VFV when the coadministration was given using the VFV suspension in 10% DMSO + Arabic gum + Tween 80 (a formulation that we have found to provide a better pharmacokinetics), even after immunosuppression using cyclophosphamide cycles, supporting the promising aspect of the drug coadministration in improving the efficacy of therapeutic arsenal against T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. DB Todd Jr. Blvd., Nashville, Tennessee 37208, United States,
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. DB Todd Jr. Blvd., Nashville, Tennessee 37208, United States,
| | - Galina I. Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry School of Medicine, Institute for Global Health, Vanderbilt University, 622A RRB, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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20
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Saccoliti F, Madia VN, Tudino V, De Leo A, Pescatori L, Messore A, De Vita D, Scipione L, Brun R, Kaiser M, Mäser P, Calvet CM, Jennings GK, Podust LM, Pepe G, Cirilli R, Faggi C, Di Marco A, Battista MR, Summa V, Costi R, Di Santo R. Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of New 1-(Aryl-1 H-pyrrolyl)(phenyl)methyl-1 H-imidazole Derivatives as Antiprotozoal Agents. J Med Chem 2019; 62:1330-1347. [PMID: 30615444 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have designed and synthesized a series of new imidazole-based compounds structurally related to an antiprotozoal agent with nanomolar activity which we identified recently. The new analogues possess micromolar activities against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Leishmania donovani and nanomolar potency against Plasmodium falciparum. Most of the analogues displayed IC50 within the low nanomolar range against Trypanosoma cruzi, with very high selectivity toward the parasite. Discussion of structure-activity relationships and in vitro biological data for the new compounds are provided against a number of different protozoa. The mechanism of action for the most potent derivatives (5i, 6a-c, and 8b) was assessed by a target-based assay using recombinant T. cruzi CYP51. Bioavailability and efficacy of selected hits were assessed in a T. cruzi mouse model, where 6a and 6b reduced parasitemia in animals >99% following intraperitoneal administration of 25 mg/kg/day dose for 4 consecutive days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Saccoliti
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Valentina Noemi Madia
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Valeria Tudino
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Alessandro De Leo
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Luca Pescatori
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Antonella Messore
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Daniela De Vita
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Luigi Scipione
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Reto Brun
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute , Socinstrasse 57 , CH-4002 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute , Socinstrasse 57 , CH-4002 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute , Socinstrasse 57 , CH-4002 Basel , Switzerland
| | - Claudia M Calvet
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of California San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States.,Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro 21040-360 , Brazil
| | - Gareth K Jennings
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of California San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Larissa M Podust
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of California San Diego , La Jolla , California 92093 , United States
| | - Giacomo Pepe
- Dipartimento di Farmacia , Università di Salerno , Via Giovanni Paolo II 132 , I-84084 Fisciano , Salerno , Italy
| | - Roberto Cirilli
- Centro Nazionale per il Controllo e la Valutazione dei Farmaci , Istituto Superiore di Sanita , Viale Regina Elena 299 , I-00161 Rome , Italy
| | - Cristina Faggi
- Dipartimento di Chimica , Università degli studi di Firenze , Via della Lastruccia 13 , I-50019 , Sesto Fiorentino , Florence , Italy
| | - Annalise Di Marco
- Drug Discovery , IRBM Science Park , Via Pontina km 30,600 , Pomezia, Rome 00071 , Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Battista
- Drug Discovery , IRBM Science Park , Via Pontina km 30,600 , Pomezia, Rome 00071 , Italy
| | - Vincenzo Summa
- Drug Discovery , IRBM Science Park , Via Pontina km 30,600 , Pomezia, Rome 00071 , Italy
| | - Roberta Costi
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
| | - Roberto Di Santo
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti , Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma , p. le Aldo Moro 5 , I-00185 Rome , Italy
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21
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Osorio-Méndez JF, Cevallos AM. Discovery and Genetic Validation of Chemotherapeutic Targets for Chagas' Disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 8:439. [PMID: 30666299 PMCID: PMC6330712 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop new treatments for Chagas' disease. To identify drug targets, it is important to understand the basic biology of Trypanosoma cruzi, in particular with respect to the biological pathways or proteins that are essential for its survival within the host. This review provides a streamlined approach for identifying drug targets using freely available chemogenetic databases and outlines the relevant characteristics of an ideal chemotherapeutic target. Among those are their essentiality, druggability, availability of structural information, and selectivity. At the moment only 16 genes have been found as essential by gene disruption in T. cruzi. At the TDR Targets database, a chemogenomics resource for neglected diseases, information about published structures for these genes was only found for three of these genes, and annotation of validated inhibitors was found in two. These inhibitors have activity against the parasitic stages present in the host. We then analyzed three of the pathways that are considered promising in the search for new targets: (1) Ergosterol biosynthesis, (2) Resistance to oxidative stress, (3) Synthesis of surface glycoconjugates. We have annotated all the genes that participate in them, identified those that are considered as druggable, and incorporated evidence from either Trypanosoma brucei, and Leishmania spp. that supports the hypothesis that these pathways are essential for T. cruzi survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Felipe Osorio-Méndez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología y Biología Molecular, Programa de Medicina, Corporación Universitaria Empresarial Alexander von Humboldt, Armenia, Colombia.,Grupo de Estudio en Parasitología Molecular, Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad del Quindío, Armenia, Colombia
| | - Ana María Cevallos
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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22
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Lepesheva GI, Friggeri L, Waterman MR. CYP51 as drug targets for fungi and protozoan parasites: past, present and future. Parasitology 2018; 145:1820-1836. [PMID: 29642960 PMCID: PMC6185833 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018000562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of treatment of human infections with the unicellular eukaryotic pathogens such as fungi and protozoa remains deeply unsatisfactory. For example, the mortality rates from nosocomial fungemia in critically ill, immunosuppressed or post-cancer patients often exceed 50%. A set of six systemic clinical azoles [sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) inhibitors] represents the first-line antifungal treatment. All these drugs were discovered empirically, by monitoring their effects on fungal cell growth, though it had been proven that they kill fungal cells by blocking the biosynthesis of ergosterol in fungi at the stage of 14α-demethylation of the sterol nucleus. This review briefs the history of antifungal azoles, outlines the situation with the current clinical azole-based drugs, describes the attempts of their repurposing for treatment of human infections with the protozoan parasites that, similar to fungi, also produce endogenous sterols, and discusses the most recently acquired knowledge on the CYP51 structure/function and inhibition. It is our belief that this information should be helpful in shifting from the traditional phenotypic screening to the actual target-driven drug discovery paradigm, which will rationalize and substantially accelerate the development of new, more efficient and pathogen-oriented CYP51 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina I. Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Laura Friggeri
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Michael R. Waterman
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
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Friggeri L, Hargrove TY, Rachakonda G, Blobaum AL, Fisher P, de Oliveira GM, da Silva CF, Soeiro MDNC, Nes WD, Lindsley CW, Villalta F, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Sterol 14α-Demethylase Structure-Based Optimization of Drug Candidates for Human Infections with the Protozoan Trypanosomatidae. J Med Chem 2018; 61:10910-10921. [PMID: 30451500 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylases (CYP51) are cytochrome P450 enzymes essential for sterol biosynthesis in eukaryotes and therapeutic targets for antifungal azoles. Multiple attempts to repurpose antifungals for treatment of human infections with protozoa (Trypanosomatidae) have been undertaken, yet so far none of them have revealed sufficient efficacy. VNI and its derivative VFV are two potent experimental inhibitors of Trypanosomatidae CYP51, effective in vivo against Chagas disease, visceral leishmaniasis, and sleeping sickness and currently under consideration as antiprotozoal drug candidates. However, VNI is less potent against Leishmania and drug-resistant strains of Trypanosoma cruzi and VFV, while displaying a broader spectrum of antiprotozoal activity, and is metabolically less stable. In this work we have designed, synthesized, and characterized a set of close analogues and identified two new compounds (7 and 9) that exceed VNI/VFV in their spectra of antiprotozoal activity, microsomal stability, and pharmacokinetics (tissue distribution in particular) and, like VNI/VFV, reveal no acute toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Friggeri
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Tatiana Y Hargrove
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology , Meharry Medical College , Nashville , Tennessee 37208 , United States
| | - Anna L Blobaum
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery , Franklin , Tennessee 37067 , United States
| | - Paxtyn Fisher
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Texas Tech University , Lubbock , Texas 79409 , United States
| | - Gabriel Melo de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , Fundação Oswaldo Cruz , Rio de Janeiro , RJ 21040-360 , Brazil
| | - Cristiane França da Silva
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , Fundação Oswaldo Cruz , Rio de Janeiro , RJ 21040-360 , Brazil
| | - Maria de Nazaré C Soeiro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , Fundação Oswaldo Cruz , Rio de Janeiro , RJ 21040-360 , Brazil
| | - W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Texas Tech University , Lubbock , Texas 79409 , United States
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery , Franklin , Tennessee 37067 , United States
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology , Meharry Medical College , Nashville , Tennessee 37208 , United States
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States.,Center for Structural Biology , Vanderbilt University , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
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Synthesis and Biological Activity of Sterol 14α-Demethylase and Sterol C24-Methyltransferase Inhibitors. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23071753. [PMID: 30018257 PMCID: PMC6099924 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23071753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterol 14α-demethylase (SDM) is essential for sterol biosynthesis and is the primary molecular target for clinical and agricultural antifungals. SDM has been demonstrated to be a valid drug target for antiprotozoal therapies, and much research has been focused on using SDM inhibitors to treat neglected tropical diseases such as human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis. Sterol C24-methyltransferase (24-SMT) introduces the C24-methyl group of ergosterol and is an enzyme found in pathogenic fungi and protozoa but is absent from animals. This difference in sterol metabolism has the potential to be exploited in the development of selective drugs that specifically target 24-SMT of invasive fungi or protozoa without adversely affecting the human or animal host. The synthesis and biological activity of SDM and 24-SMT inhibitors are reviewed herein.
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25
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Saccoliti F, Madia VN, Tudino V, De Leo A, Pescatori L, Messore A, De Vita D, Scipione L, Brun R, Kaiser M, Mäser P, Calvet CM, Jennings GK, Podust LM, Costi R, Di Santo R. Biological evaluation and structure-activity relationships of imidazole-based compounds as antiprotozoal agents. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 156:53-60. [PMID: 30006174 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.06.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We discovered a series of azole antifungal compounds as effective antiprotozoal agents. They displayed promising inhibitory activities within the micromolar-submicromolar range against P. falciparum, L. donovani, and T. b. rhodesiense. Moreover, most of such compounds showed excellent nanomolar IC50 against T. cruzi, showing also very low cytotoxicity. Discussion of structure-activity relationships and biological data for these compounds are provided against the different parasites. To assess the mechanism of action against T. cruzi we proved that the most potent compounds (3b, 3j-l) inhibited the T. cruzi CYP51. Moreover, the most active derivative 3j dramatically reduced parasitemia in T. cruzi mouse model without acute toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Saccoliti
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Valentina Noemi Madia
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Valeria Tudino
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Alessandro De Leo
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Luca Pescatori
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Antonella Messore
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Daniela De Vita
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Luigi Scipione
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Reto Brun
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Claudia Magalhaes Calvet
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA; Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21040-360, Brazil.
| | - Gareth K Jennings
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Larissa M Podust
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Roberta Costi
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberto Di Santo
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, "Sapienza" Università di Roma, p.le Aldo Moro 5, I-00185, Rome, Italy.
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26
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Friggeri L, Hargrove TY, Wawrzak Z, Blobaum AL, Rachakonda G, Lindsley CW, Villalta F, Nes WD, Botta M, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Sterol 14α-Demethylase Structure-Based Design of VNI (( R)- N-(1-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1 H-imidazol-1-yl)ethyl)-4-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamide)) Derivatives To Target Fungal Infections: Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Crystallographic Analysis. J Med Chem 2018; 61:5679-5691. [PMID: 29894182 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Because of the increase in the number of immunocompromised patients, the incidence of invasive fungal infections is growing, but the treatment efficiency remains unacceptably low. The most potent clinical systemic antifungals (azoles) are the derivatives of two scaffolds: ketoconazole and fluconazole. Being the safest antifungal drugs, they still have shortcomings, mainly because of pharmacokinetics and resistance. Here, we report the successful use of the target fungal enzyme, sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51), for structure-based design of novel antifungal drug candidates by minor modifications of VNI [( R)- N-(1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-(1 H-imidazol-1-yl)ethyl)-4-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamide)], an inhibitor of protozoan CYP51 that cures Chagas disease. The synthesis of fungi-oriented VNI derivatives, analysis of their potencies to inhibit CYP51s from two major fungal pathogens ( Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans), microsomal stability, effects in fungal cells, and structural characterization of A. fumigatus CYP51 in complexes with the most potent compound are described, offering a new antifungal drug scaffold and outlining directions for its further optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Friggeri
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Tatiana Y Hargrove
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team , Northwestern University , Argonne , Illinois 60439 , United States
| | - Anna L Blobaum
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery , Franklin , Tennessee 37067 , United States
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology , Meharry Medical College , Nashville , Tennessee 37208 , United States
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery , Franklin , Tennessee 37067 , United States
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology , Meharry Medical College , Nashville , Tennessee 37208 , United States
| | - W David Nes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Texas Tech University , Lubbock , Texas 79409 , United States
| | - Maurizio Botta
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy , University of Siena , Siena 53100 , Italy
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States.,Center for Structural Biology , Vanderbilt University , Nashville , Tennessee 37232 , United States
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27
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Rudeck J, Bert B, Marx-Stoelting P, Schönfelder G, Vogl S. Liver lobe and strain differences in the activity of murine cytochrome P450 enzymes. Toxicology 2018; 404-405:76-85. [PMID: 29879457 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme superfamily is the most important enzyme system for phase I biotransformation. For toxico- and pharmacokinetic studies, use of liver-based microsomes, including those of mice, is state-of-the-art to study CYP-dependent metabolism. However, reproducibility and interpretation of these data is still very variable, partly because current testing guidelines do not cover details on organ sampling and potential liver lobe differences. Hence, we analyzed CYP activity, CYP protein content, mRNA expression of CYP1A, CYP2C, CYP2D and CYP3A isozymes, and cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) activity of the four different liver lobes and processus papillaris of male C57BL/6J mice in comparison to whole liver. Additionally, we used whole liver of Balb/cJ and 129S1/SvImJ for strain comparison. Our data show significant differences in CYP activity, being most prominent in lobus sinister lateralis and lobus medialis, and lowest in processus papillaris. These differences were not caused by varying Cyp gene expression or CYP protein level, but partly correspond with lobe specific CPR activities. We also observed significant strain differences in CYP mRNA expression and activities with overall high activities in 129S1/SvImJ mice and low activities in Balb/cJ mice compared to C57BL/6J mice. In addition, strain specific differences in CYP2C and CYP2D activity seem to be reflected in strain dependent differences in CPR activity. In summary, our results indicate that in mice CYP activity and gene expression are strain dependent and may vary highly between liver lobes. To ensure reproducibility and comparability of different probes and studies, this should be taken into account when liver samples are collected for the analysis of CYP-dependent metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Rudeck
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Bettina Bert
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Philip Marx-Stoelting
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Gilbert Schönfelder
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Cooperate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Silvia Vogl
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parasitic diseases that pose a threat to human life include leishmaniasis - caused by protozoan parasite Leishmania species. Existing drugs have limitations due to deleterious side effects like teratogenicity, high cost and drug resistance. This calls for the need to have an insight into therapeutic aspects of disease. Areas covered: We have identified different drug targets via. molecular, imuunological, metabolic as well as by system biology approaches. We bring these promising drug targets into light so that they can be explored to their maximum. In an effort to bridge the gaps between existing knowledge and prospects of drug discovery, we have compiled interesting studies on drug targets, thereby paving the way for establishment of better therapeutic aspects. Expert opinion: Advancements in technology shed light on many unexplored pathways. Further probing of well established pathways led to the discovery of new drug targets. This review is a comprehensive report on current and emerging drug targets, with emphasis on several metabolic targets, organellar biochemistry, salvage pathways, epigenetics, kinome and more. Identification of new targets can contribute significantly towards strengthening the pipeline for disease elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Sundar
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
| | - Bhawana Singh
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, UP, India
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Ferreira de Almeida Fiuza L, Peres RB, Simões-Silva MR, da Silva PB, Batista DDGJ, da Silva CF, Nefertiti Silva da Gama A, Krishna Reddy TR, Soeiro MDNC. Identification of Pyrazolo[3,4-e][1,4]thiazepin based CYP51 inhibitors as potential Chagas disease therapeutic alternative: In vitro and in vivo evaluation, binding mode prediction and SAR exploration. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 149:257-268. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Calvet CM, Choi JY, Thomas D, Suzuki B, Hirata K, Lostracco-Johnson S, de Mesquita LB, Nogueira A, Meuser-Batista M, Silva TA, Siqueira-Neto JL, Roush WR, de Souza Pereira MC, McKerrow JH, Podust LM. 4-aminopyridyl-based lead compounds targeting CYP51 prevent spontaneous parasite relapse in a chronic model and improve cardiac pathology in an acute model of Trypanosoma cruzi infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0006132. [PMID: 29281643 PMCID: PMC5744913 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is the leading cause of heart failure in Latin America. The clinical treatment of Chagas disease is limited to two 60 year-old drugs, nifurtimox and benznidazole, that have variable efficacy against different strains of the parasite and may lead to severe side effects. CYP51 is an enzyme in the sterol biosynthesis pathway that has been exploited for the development of therapeutics for fungal and parasitic infections. In a target-based drug discovery program guided by x-ray crystallography, we identified the 4-aminopyridyl-based series of CYP51 inhibitors as being efficacious versus T.cruzi in vitro; two of the most potent leads, 9 and 12, have now been evaluated for toxicity and efficacy in mice. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Both acute and chronic animal models infected with wild type or transgenic T. cruzi strains were evaluated. There was no evidence of toxicity in the 28-day dosing study of uninfected animals, as judged by the monitoring of multiple serum and histological parameters. In two acute models of Chagas disease, 9 and 12 drastically reduced parasitemia, increased survival of mice, and prevented liver and heart injury. None of the compounds produced long term sterile cure. In the less severe acute model using the transgenic CL-Brenner strain of T.cruzi, parasitemia relapsed upon drug withdrawal. In the chronic model, parasitemia fell to a background level and, as evidenced by the bioluminescence detection of T. cruzi expressing the red-shifted luciferase marker, mice remained negative for 4 weeks after drug withdrawal. Two immunosuppression cycles with cyclophosphamide were required to re-activate the parasites. Although no sterile cure was achieved, the suppression of parasitemia in acutely infected mice resulted in drastically reduced inflammation in the heart. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The positive outcomes achieved in the absence of sterile cure suggest that the target product profile in anti-Chagasic drug discovery should be revised in favor of safe re-administration of the medication during the lifespan of a Chagas disease patient. A medication that reduces parasite burden may halt or slow progression of cardiomyopathy and therefore improve both life expectancy and quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Magalhaes Calvet
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jun Yong Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | - Diane Thomas
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Brian Suzuki
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Ken Hirata
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sharon Lostracco-Johnson
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Liliane Batista de Mesquita
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alanderson Nogueira
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Meuser-Batista
- Department of Pathologic Anatomy, Fernandes Figueira Institute (IFF), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Araujo Silva
- Cellular Ultra-Structure Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute (IOC), FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Jair Lage Siqueira-Neto
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - William R. Roush
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Florida, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | | | - James H. McKerrow
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Larissa M. Podust
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
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Lepesheva G, Christov P, Sulikowski GA, Kim K. A convergent, scalable and stereoselective synthesis of azole CYP51 inhibitors. Tetrahedron Lett 2017; 58:4248-4250. [PMID: 29371747 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2017.09.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The study and development of azole-based CYP51 inhibitors is an active area of research across disciplines of biochemistry, pharmacology and infectious disease. Support of in vitro and in vivo studies require the development of robust asymmetric routes to single enantiomer products of this class of compounds. Herein, we describe a scalable and enantioselective synthesis to VNI and VFV, the two potent inhibitors of protozoan sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) that are currently under consideration for clinical trials for Chagas disease. A key transformation is the Jacobsen Hydrolytic Kinetic Resolution (HKR) reaction. The utility of the synthetic route is illustrated by the preparation of >25 g quantities of single enantiomers of VNI and VFV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina Lepesheva
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 77842-3012, USA
| | - Plamen Christov
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 77842-3012, USA
| | - Gary A Sulikowski
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 77842-3012, USA
| | - Kwangho Kim
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 77842-3012, USA
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32
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Crystal Structure of the New Investigational Drug Candidate VT-1598 in Complex with Aspergillus fumigatus Sterol 14α-Demethylase Provides Insights into Its Broad-Spectrum Antifungal Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00570-17. [PMID: 28461309 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00570-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Within the past few decades, the incidence and complexity of human fungal infections have increased, and therefore, the need for safer and more efficient, broad-spectrum antifungal agents is high. In the study described here, we characterized the new tetrazole-based drug candidate VT-1598 as an inhibitor of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51B) from the filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus VT-1598 displayed a high affinity of binding to the enzyme in solution (dissociation constant, 13 ± 1 nM) and in the reconstituted enzymatic reaction was revealed to have an inhibitory potency stronger than the potencies of all other simultaneously tested antifungal drugs, including fluconazole, voriconazole, ketoconazole, and posaconazole. The X-ray structure of the VT-1598/A. fumigatus CYP51 complex was determined and depicts the distinctive binding mode of the inhibitor in the enzyme active site, suggesting the molecular basis of the improved drug potency and broad-spectrum antifungal activity. These data show the formation of an optimized hydrogen bond between the phenoxymethyl oxygen of VT-1598 and the imidazole ring nitrogen of His374, the CYP51 residue that is highly conserved across fungal pathogens and fungus specific. Comparative structural analysis of A. fumigatus CYP51/voriconazole and Candida albicans CYP51/VT-1161 complexes supports the role of H bonding in fungal CYP51/inhibitor complexes and emphasizes the importance of an optimal distance between this interaction and the inhibitor-heme iron interaction. Cellular experiments using two A. fumigatus strains (strains 32820 and 1022) displayed a direct correlation between the effects of the drugs on CYP51B activity and fungal growth inhibition, indicating the noteworthy anti-A. fumigatus potency of VT-1598 and confirming its promise as a broad-spectrum antifungal agent.
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da Silva AM, Araújo-Silva L, Bombaça ACS, Menna-Barreto RFS, Rodrigues-Santos CE, Buarque Ferreira AB, de Castro SL. Synthesis and biological evaluation of N-alkyl naphthoimidazoles derived from β-lapachone against Trypanosoma cruzi bloodstream trypomastigotes. MEDCHEMCOMM 2017; 8:952-959. [PMID: 30108809 PMCID: PMC6071937 DOI: 10.1039/c7md00069c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The QSAR study of 34 2-aryl-naphthoimidazoles screened so far revealed that σi is the most important factor for their lytic activity on the bloodstream trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. Based on this result, 16 new N-alkyl-naphthoimidazoles derived from 6,6-dimethyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydrobenzo[7,8]chromene[5,6-d]imidazole (the product of the reaction of β-lapachone with paraformaldehyde) by its reaction with halo-alkanes were prepared and evaluated against the parasite and peritoneal macrophages. The N1-n-hexyl and N3-n-hexyl naphthoimidazoles were 2.2 and 3.2 times more active than the standard drug benznidazole with selectivity indices of 2.7 and 13.4, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Miranda da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química , UFRRJ , 23890-000 , Seropédica , RJ , Brazil
- Instituto de Pesquisas em Produtos Naturais , UFRJ , 21944-970 , Rio de Janeiro , RJ , Brazil
| | | | - Ana Cristina S Bombaça
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , FIOCRUZ , 21045-900 , Rio de Janeiro , RJ , Brazil . ; Tel: +55 21 25621391
| | - Rubem F S Menna-Barreto
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , FIOCRUZ , 21045-900 , Rio de Janeiro , RJ , Brazil . ; Tel: +55 21 25621391
| | | | | | - Solange L de Castro
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular , Instituto Oswaldo Cruz , FIOCRUZ , 21045-900 , Rio de Janeiro , RJ , Brazil . ; Tel: +55 21 25621391
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Nitrotriazole-Based Compounds as Antichagasic Agents in a Long-Treatment In Vivo Assay. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.02717-16. [PMID: 28242662 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02717-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Nitrotriazole-based compounds belonging to various chemical subclasses were found to be very effective against Chagas disease both in vitro and in vivo after a short administration schedule. In this study, five compounds with specific characteristics were selected to be administered for longer periods of time to mice infected with the virulent Trypanosoma cruzi Y strain to further evaluate their effectiveness as antichagasic agents and whether or not potential adverse effects occur. Benznidazole was included for comparison purposes. Complete parasitemia depletion, weight gain, 100% survival, and a lack of myocardial inflammation were observed with four of the compounds and benznidazole administered intraperitoneally at 15 or 20 mg/kg of body weight/day for 40 days. There was a significant reduction in the number of treatment days (number of doses) necessary to induce parasitemia suppression with all four compounds compared to that required with benznidazole. Partial cures were obtained with only one compound tested at 15 mg/kg/day and on the schedule mentioned above but not with benznidazole. Taken together, our data suggest that these compounds demonstrate potent trypanocidal activity comparable to or better than that of the reference drug, benznidazole, when they are administered at the same dose and on the same schedule.
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Antitrypanosomal Activity of Sterol 14α-Demethylase (CYP51) Inhibitors VNI and VFV in the Swiss Mouse Models of Chagas Disease Induced by the Trypanosoma cruzi Y Strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.02098-16. [PMID: 28167559 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02098-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is a life-threatening infection caused by a variety of genetically diverse strains of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi The current treatment (benznidazole and nifurtimox) is unsatisfactory, and potential alternatives include inhibitors of sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51), the cytochrome P450 enzyme essential for the biosynthesis of sterols in eukaryotes and the major target of clinical and agricultural antifungals. Here we performed a comparative investigation of two protozoon-specific CYP51 inhibitors, VNI and its CYP51 structure-based derivative VFV, in the murine models of infection caused by the Y strain of T. cruzi The effects of different treatment regimens and drug delivery vehicles were evaluated in animals of both genders, with benznidazole serving as the reference drug. Regardless of the treatment scheme or delivery vehicle, VFV was more potent in both genders, causing a >99.7% peak parasitemia reduction, while the VNI values varied from 91 to 100%. Treatments with VNI and VFV resulted in 100% animal survival and 0% natural relapse after the end of therapy, though, except for the 120-day treatment schemes with VFV, relapses after three cycles of immunosuppression were observed in each animal group, and quantitative PCR analysis revealed a very light parasite load in the blood samples (sometimes below or near the detection limit, which was 1.5 parasite equivalents/ml). Our studies support further investigations of this class of compounds, including their testing against other T. cruzi strains and in combination with other drugs.
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Hargrove TY, Friggeri L, Wawrzak Z, Qi A, Hoekstra WJ, Schotzinger RJ, York JD, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Structural analyses of Candida albicans sterol 14α-demethylase complexed with azole drugs address the molecular basis of azole-mediated inhibition of fungal sterol biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:6728-6743. [PMID: 28258218 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.778308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
With some advances in modern medicine (such as cancer chemotherapy, broad exposure to antibiotics, and immunosuppression), the incidence of opportunistic fungal pathogens such as Candida albicans has increased. Cases of drug resistance among these pathogens have become more frequent, requiring the development of new drugs and a better understanding of the targeted enzymes. Sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) is a cytochrome P450 enzyme required for biosynthesis of sterols in eukaryotic cells and is the major target of clinical drugs for managing fungal pathogens, but some of the CYP51 key features important for rational drug design have remained obscure. We report the catalytic properties, ligand-binding profiles, and inhibition of enzymatic activity of C. albicans CYP51 by clinical antifungal drugs that are used systemically (fluconazole, voriconazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, and posaconazole) and topically (miconazole and clotrimazole) and by a tetrazole-based drug candidate, VT-1161 (oteseconazole: (R)-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-3-(1H-tetrazol-1-yl)-1-(5-(4-(2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol). Among the compounds tested, the first-line drug fluconazole was the weakest inhibitor, whereas posaconazole and VT-1161 were the strongest CYP51 inhibitors. We determined the X-ray structures of C. albicans CYP51 complexes with posaconazole and VT-1161, providing a molecular mechanism for the potencies of these drugs, including the activity of VT-1161 against Candida krusei and Candida glabrata, pathogens that are intrinsically resistant to fluconazole. Our comparative structural analysis outlines phylum-specific CYP51 features that could direct future rational development of more efficient broad-spectrum antifungals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Y Hargrove
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Laura Friggeri
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- the Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - Aidong Qi
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | | | | | - John D York
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, .,the Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
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Vermelho AB, Capaci GR, Rodrigues IA, Cardoso VS, Mazotto AM, Supuran CT. Carbonic anhydrases from Trypanosoma and Leishmania as anti-protozoan drug targets. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:1543-1555. [PMID: 28161253 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. are protozoa of the Trypanosomatidae family, being the etiological agents of two widespread parasitic diseases, Chagas disease and leishmaniasis, respectively. Both parasites are the focus of worldwide research with the aim to find effective and less toxic drugs than the few ones available so far, and for controlling the spread of the diseases. Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) belonging to the α- and β-class were recently identified in these protozoans and several studies suggested that they could be new targets for drug development. Sulfonamide, thiol and hydroxamate inhibitors effectively inhibited the α-CA from T. cruzi (TcCA) and the β-CA from L. donovani chagasi (LdccCA) in vitro, and some of them also showed in vivo efficacy in inhibiting the growth of the parasites in animal models of Chagas disease and leishmaniasis. As few therapeutic options are presently available for these orphan diseases, protozoan CA inhibition may represent a novel strategy to address this stringent health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alane B Vermelho
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Giseli R Capaci
- School of Science and Technology and Graduate Studies in Science Education Program, University of Rio Grande, Duque de Caxias, RJ, Brazil
| | - Igor A Rodrigues
- Department of Natural Products and Food, School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Verônica S Cardoso
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Mazotto
- BIOINOVAR - Biotechnology Laboratories: Biocatalysis, Bioproducts and Bioenergy, Institute of Microbiology Paulo de Goes, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Claudiu T Supuran
- Neurofarba Department and Laboratorio di Chimica Bioinorganica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via U. Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Florence, Italy.
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Kumar K, King EA, Muzaale AD, Konel JM, Bramstedt KA, Massie AB, Segev DL, Cameron AM. A Smartphone App for Increasing Live Organ Donation. Am J Transplant 2016; 16:3548-3553. [PMID: 27402293 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.13961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of live donor transplantation has declined over the past decade, and waitlisted candidates report substantial barriers to identifying a live donor. Since asking someone to donate feels awkward and unfamiliar, candidates are hesitant to ask directly and may be more comfortable with a passive approach. In collaboration with Facebook leadership (Facebook Inc., Menlo Park, CA), we developed a mobile application-an app-that enables waitlisted candidates to create a Facebook post about their experience with organ failure and their need for a live donor. We conducted a single-center prospective cohort study of 54 adult kidney-only and liver-only waitlisted candidates using the Facebook app. Cox proportional hazards models were used to describe donor referral on behalf of candidates using the app compared with matched controls. The majority of candidates who used the app reported it to be "good" or "excellent" with regard to the installation process (82.9%), readability (88.6%), simplicity (70.6%), clarity (87.5%) and the information provided (85.3%). Compared with controls, candidates using the Facebook app were 2.43 6.6117.98 times more likely to have a donor come forward on their behalf (p < 0.001). The Facebook app is an easy-to-use instrument that enables waitlisted candidates to passively communicate with their social network about their need for a live donor.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kumar
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - E A King
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - A D Muzaale
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - J M Konel
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - K A Bramstedt
- Bond University School of Medicine, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - A B Massie
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Epidemiology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - D L Segev
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD.,Department of Epidemiology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - A M Cameron
- Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
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Matthews QL, Farrow AL, Rachakonda G, Gu L, Nde P, Krendelchtchikov A, Pratap S, Sakhare SS, Sabbaj S, Lima MF, Villalta F. Epitope Capsid-Incorporation: New Effective Approach for Vaccine Development for Chagas Disease. Pathog Immun 2016; 1:214-233. [PMID: 27709126 PMCID: PMC5046838 DOI: 10.20411/pai.v1i2.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Previously we reported that a hexon-modified adenovirus (Ad) vector containing the invasive neutralizing epitope of Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) trypomastigote gp83 (Ad5-gp83) provided immunoprotection against T. cruzi infection. The purpose of this work was to design an improved vaccine for T. cruzi using a novel epitope capsid incorporation strategy. Thus, we evaluated the immunoprotection raised by co-immunization with Ad5-gp83 and an Ad vector containing an epitope (ASP-M) of the T. cruzi amastigote surface protein 2. Methods: Protein IX (pIX)-modified Ad vector (Ad5-pIX-ASP-M) was generated, characterized, and validated. C3H/He mice were immunized with Ad5-pIX-ASP-M and Ad5-gp83 and the cell-mediated responses were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay and intracellular staining. Immunized mice were challenged with T. cruzi to evaluate the vaccine efficacy. Results: Our findings indicate that Ad5-pIX-ASP-M was viable. Specific CD8+ T-cell mediated responses prior to the challenge show an increase in IFNγ and TNFα production. A single immunization with Ad5-pIX-ASP-M provided protection from T. cruzi infection, but co-immunizations with Ad5-pIX-ASP-M and Ad5-gp83 provided a higher immunoprotection and increased survival rate of mice. Conclusions: Overall, these results suggest that the combination of gp83 and ASP-M specific epitopes onto the capsid-incorporated adenoviruses would provide superior protection against Chagas disease as compared with Ad5-gp83 alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiana L Matthews
- Department of Biological Sciences, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL; Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
| | - Anitra L Farrow
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
| | - Linlin Gu
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Pius Nde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
| | | | - Siddharth Pratap
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
| | - Shruti S Sakhare
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
| | - Steffanie Sabbaj
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
| | - Maria F Lima
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN
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Conjugation of N-acylhydrazone and 1,2,4-oxadiazole leads to the identification of active antimalarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:5693-5701. [PMID: 27667552 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, caused by several Plasmodium species, is the major life-threatening parasitic infection worldwide. Due to the parasite resistance to quinoline based drugs, the search for antimalarial agents is necessary. Here, we report the structural design, synthesis and antiparasitic evaluation of two novel series of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles in conjugation to N-acylhydrazones, both groups recognized as privileged structures, as well as the studies on the antimalarial activity of 16 previous described analogues. By varying substituents attached to the phenyl ring, it was possible to retain, enhance or increase the antiparasitic activity in comparison to the nonsubstituted derivatives. Replacement of substituted aryl rings by ferrocenyl and cinnamyl moieties attached in the N-acylhydrazone ablated the antiparasitic response, evidencing the structural features associated with the activity. Active compounds exhibited in vitro potency similar to mefloquine, but not all inhibited β-hematin formation. Additionally, the active compounds displayed low cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells and did not cause hemolysis in uninfected erythrocytes. In Plasmodium berghei-infected mice, the compounds reduced parasitemia but exhibited limited efficacy in increasing mice survival when compared to chloroquine, suggesting that pharmacological improvement is still necessary.
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Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer WD, Rosenzweig HS, Wilkinson SR, Szular J, Kaiser M. Nitrotriazole-based acetamides and propanamides with broad spectrum antitrypanosomal activity. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 123:895-904. [PMID: 27543881 PMCID: PMC5049494 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
3-Nitro-1H-1,2,4-triazole-based acetamides bearing a biphenyl- or a phenoxyphenyl moiety have shown remarkable antichagasic activity both in vitro and in an acute murine model, as well as substantial in vitro antileishmanial activity but lacked activity against human African trypanosomiasis. We have shown now that by inserting a methylene group in the linkage to obtain the corresponding propanamides, both antichagasic and in particular anti-human African trypanosomiasis potency was increased. Therefore, IC50 values at low nM concentrations against both T. cruzi and T. b. rhodesiense, along with huge selectivity indices were obtained. Although several propanamides were active against Leishmania donovani, they were slightly less potent than their corresponding acetamides. There was a good correlation between lipophilicity (clogP value) and trypanocidal activity, for all new compounds. Type I nitroreductase, an enzyme absent from the human host, played a role in the activation of the new compounds, which may function as prodrugs. Antichagasic activity in vivo was also demonstrated with representative propanamides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shane R Wilkinson
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Joanna Szular
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Parasite Chemotherapy, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Papadopoulou MV, Bloomer WD, Rosenzweig HS, Wilkinson SR, Szular J, Kaiser M. Antitrypanosomal activity of 5-nitro-2-aminothiazole-based compounds. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 117:179-86. [PMID: 27092415 PMCID: PMC4876673 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A small series of 5-nitro-2-aminothiazole-based amides containing arylpiperazine-, biphenyl- or aryloxyphenyl groups in their core were synthesized and evaluated as antitrypanosomatid agents. All tested compounds were active or moderately active against Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes in infected L6 cells and Trypanosoma brucei brucei, four of eleven compounds were moderately active against Leishmania donovani axenic parasites while none were deemed active against T. brucei rhodesiense. For the most active/moderately active compounds a moderate selectivity against each parasite was observed. There was good correlation between lipophilicity (clogP value) and antileishmanial activity or toxicity against L6 cells. Similarly, good correlation existed between clogP values and IC50 values against T. cruzi in structurally related subgroups of compounds. Three compounds were more potent as antichagasic agents than benznidazole but were not activated by the type I nitrorectusase (NTR).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shane R Wilkinson
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Joanna Szular
- School of Biological & Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Parasite Chemotherapy, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Hargrove TY, Friggeri L, Wawrzak Z, Sivakumaran S, Yazlovitskaya EM, Hiebert SW, Guengerich FP, Waterman MR, Lepesheva GI. Human sterol 14α-demethylase as a target for anticancer chemotherapy: towards structure-aided drug design. J Lipid Res 2016; 57:1552-63. [PMID: 27313059 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m069229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapidly multiplying cancer cells synthesize greater amounts of cholesterol to build their membranes. Cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins) are currently in clinical trials for anticancer chemotherapy. However, given at higher doses, statins cause serious side effects by inhibiting the formation of other biologically important molecules derived from mevalonate. Sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51), which acts 10 steps downstream, is potentially a more specific drug target because this portion of the pathway is fully committed to cholesterol production. However, screening a variety of commercial and experimental inhibitors of microbial CYP51 orthologs revealed that most of them (including all clinical antifungals) weakly inhibit human CYP51 activity, even if they display high apparent spectral binding affinity. Only one relatively potent compound, (R)-N-(1-(3,4'-difluorobiphenyl-4-yl)-2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethyl)-4-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamide (VFV), was identified. VFV has been further tested in cellular experiments and found to decrease proliferation of different cancer cell types. The crystal structures of human CYP51-VFV complexes (2.0 and 2.5 Å) both display a 2:1 inhibitor/enzyme stoichiometry, provide molecular insights regarding a broader substrate profile, faster catalysis, and weaker susceptibility of human CYP51 to inhibition, and outline directions for the development of more potent inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Y Hargrove
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Laura Friggeri
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, IL
| | - Suneethi Sivakumaran
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | | | - Scott W Hiebert
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Michael R Waterman
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite the fact that diseases caused by protozoan parasites represent serious challenges for public health, animal production and welfare, only a limited panel of drugs has been marketed for clinical applications. AREAS COVERED Herein, the authors investigate two strategies, namely whole organism screening and target-based drug design. The present pharmacopoeia has resulted from whole organism screening, and the mode of action and targets of selected drugs are discussed. However, the more recent extensive genome sequencing efforts and the development of dry and wet lab genomics and proteomics that allow high-throughput screening of interactions between micromolecules and recombinant proteins has resulted in target-based drug design as the predominant focus in anti-parasitic drug development. Selected examples of target-based drug design studies are presented, and calcium-dependent protein kinases, important drug targets in apicomplexan parasites, are discussed in more detail. EXPERT OPINION Despite the enormous efforts in target-based drug development, this approach has not yet generated market-ready antiprotozoal drugs. However, whole-organism screening approaches, comprising of both in vitro and in vivo investigations, should not be disregarded. The repurposing of already approved and marketed drugs could be a suitable strategy to avoid fastidious approval procedures, especially in the case of neglected or veterinary parasitoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- a Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- a Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
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45
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Hargrove TY, Wawrzak Z, Lamb DC, Guengerich FP, Lepesheva GI. Structure-Functional Characterization of Cytochrome P450 Sterol 14α-Demethylase (CYP51B) from Aspergillus fumigatus and Molecular Basis for the Development of Antifungal Drugs. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:23916-34. [PMID: 26269599 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.677310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is the opportunistic fungal pathogen that predominantly affects the immunocompromised population and causes 600,000 deaths/year. The cytochrome P450 51 (CYP51) inhibitor voriconazole is currently the drug of choice, yet the treatment efficiency remains low, calling for rational development of more efficient agents. A. fumigatus has two CYP51 genes, CYP51A and CYP51B, which share 59% amino acid sequence identity. CYP51B is expressed constitutively, whereas gene CYP51A is reported to be inducible. We expressed, purified, and characterized A. fumigatus CYP51B, including determination of its substrate preferences, catalytic parameters, inhibition, and x-ray structure in complexes with voriconazole and the experimental inhibitor (R)-N-(1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethyl)-4-(5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)benzamide (VNI). The enzyme demethylated its natural substrate eburicol and the plant CYP51 substrate obtusifoliol at steady-state rates of 17 and 16 min(-1), respectively, but did not metabolize lanosterol, and the topical antifungal drug miconazole was the strongest inhibitor that we identified. The x-ray crystal structures displayed high overall similarity of A. fumigatus CYP51B to CYP51 orthologs from other biological kingdoms but revealed phylum-specific differences relevant to enzyme catalysis and inhibition. The complex with voriconazole provides an explanation for the potency of this relatively small molecule, whereas the complex with VNI outlines a direction for further enhancement of the efficiency of this new inhibitory scaffold to treat humans afflicted with filamentous fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Y Hargrove
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Zdzislaw Wawrzak
- the Synchrotron Research Center, Life Science Collaborative Access Team, Northwestern University, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - David C Lamb
- Swansea University, Swansea, Wales SA2 8PP, United Kingdom, and
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Galina I Lepesheva
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, the Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
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Potent In Vitro Antiproliferative Synergism of Combinations of Ergosterol Biosynthesis Inhibitors against Leishmania amazonensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:6402-18. [PMID: 26239973 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01150-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniases comprise a spectrum of diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus. Treatments available have limited safety and efficacy, high costs, and difficult administration. Thus, there is an urgent need for safer and more-effective therapies. Most trypanosomatids have an essential requirement for ergosterol and other 24-alkyl sterols, which are absent in mammalian cells. In previous studies, we showed that Leishmania amazonensis is highly susceptible to aryl-quinuclidines, such as E5700, which inhibit squalene synthase, and to the azoles itraconazole (ITZ) and posaconazole (POSA), which inhibit C-14α-demethylase. Herein, we investigated the antiproliferative, ultrastructural, and biochemical effects of combinations of E5700 with ITZ and POSA against L. amazonensis. Potent synergistic antiproliferative effects were observed against promastigotes, with fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) ratios of 0.0525 and 0.0162 for combinations of E5700 plus ITZ and of E5700 plus POSA, respectively. Against intracellular amastigotes, FIC values were 0.175 and 0.1125 for combinations of E5700 plus ITZ and E5700 plus POSA, respectively. Marked alterations of the ultrastructure of promastigotes treated with the combinations were observed, in particular mitochondrial swelling, which was consistent with a reduction of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species. We also observed the presence of vacuoles similar to autophagosomes in close association with mitochondria and an increase in the number of lipid bodies. Both growth arrest and ultrastructural/biochemical alterations were strictly associated with the depletion of the 14-desmethyl endogenous sterol pool. These results suggest the possibility of a novel combination therapy for the treatment of leishmaniasis.
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