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La Guidara C, Adamo R, Sala C, Micoli F. Vaccines and Monoclonal Antibodies as Alternative Strategies to Antibiotics to Fight Antimicrobial Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5487. [PMID: 38791526 PMCID: PMC11122364 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most critical threats to global public health in the 21st century, causing a large number of deaths every year in both high-income and low- and middle-income countries. Vaccines and monoclonal antibodies can be exploited to prevent and treat diseases caused by AMR pathogens, thereby reducing antibiotic use and decreasing selective pressure that favors the emergence of resistant strains. Here, differences in the mechanism of action and resistance of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies compared to antibiotics are discussed. The state of the art for vaccine technologies and monoclonal antibodies are reviewed, with a particular focus on approaches validated in clinical studies. By underscoring the scope and limitations of the different emerging technologies, this review points out the complementary of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies in fighting AMR. Gaps in antigen discovery for some pathogens, as well as challenges associated with the clinical development of these therapies against AMR pathogens, are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara La Guidara
- Magnetic Resonance Center CERM, University of Florence, 50019 Florence, Italy
- Department of Chemistry “Ugo Schiff”, University of Florence, 50019 Florence, Italy
| | | | - Claudia Sala
- Monoclonal Antibody Discovery Laboratory, Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Francesca Micoli
- GSK Vaccines Institute for Global Health S.R.L. (GVGH), 53100 Siena, Italy
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2
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Ständer S, R Grauslund L, Scarselli M, Norais N, Rand K. Epitope Mapping of Polyclonal Antibodies by Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry (HDX-MS). Anal Chem 2021; 93:11669-11678. [PMID: 34308633 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Epitope mapping of antibodies (Abs) is crucial for understanding adaptive immunity, as well as studying the mode of action of therapeutic antibodies and vaccines. Especially insights into the binding of the entire polyclonal antibody population (pAb) raised upon vaccination would be of unique value to vaccine development. However, very few methods for epitope mapping can tolerate the complexity of a pAb sample. Here we show how hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) can be used to map epitopes recognized by pAb samples. Our approach involves measuring the HDX of the antigen in absence or presence of varied amounts of pAbs, as well as dissociating additives. We apply the HDX-MS workflow to pAbs isolated from rabbit immunized with factor H-binding protein (fHbp), a Neisseria meningitidis vaccine antigen. We identify four immunogenic regions located on the N- and C-terminal region of fHbp and provide insights into the relative abundance and avidity of epitope binding Abs present in the sample. Overall, our results show that HDX-MS can provide a unique and relatively fast method for revealing the binding impact of the entire set of pAbs present in blood samples after vaccination. Such information provides a rare view into effective immunity and can guide the design of improved vaccines against viruses or bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Ständer
- Protein Analysis Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.,GSK, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Laura R Grauslund
- Protein Analysis Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.,GSK, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | | | | | - Kasper Rand
- Protein Analysis Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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3
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Rigano F, Arena P, Mangraviti D, Donnarumma D, Dugo P, Donato P, Mondello L, Micalizzi G. Identification of high-value generating molecules from the wastes of tuna fishery industry by liquid chromatography and gas chromatography hyphenated techniques with automated sample preparation. J Sep Sci 2021; 44:1571-1580. [PMID: 33617095 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202100108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The present work aims to a promising re-utilization of the massive waste derived from the tuna fishing industry, for which by-products can represent more than 50% of the original material. Due to the considerable content in polyunsaturated fatty acids and noble proteins, such wastes can be used as primary source of functional ingredients in the production of nutraceuticals. The composition of the lipid and protein tuna fractions was investigated by means of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods (in wastes and edible parts), and a preliminary characterization of potential bioactive peptides was achieved. Automated sample preparation allowed speeding up the analytical workflow, while allowing for highly sensitive and selective lipid characterization. The ω3 fatty acid content was found higher in waste products compared to the muscle, in terms of fatty acids as well as complex lipids. As for peptides, extraction by isoelectric solubilization/precipitation was performed, followed by enzymatic digestion and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Furthermore, the use of bioinformatics tools highlighted the presence of potential antimicrobial peptides in the samples investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Rigano
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Paola Arena
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Domenica Mangraviti
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Danilo Donnarumma
- Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Paola Dugo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.,Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.,BeSep s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Paola Donato
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Luigi Mondello
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.,Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.,BeSep s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Micalizzi
- Chromaleont s.r.l., c/o Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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Ness S, Hilleringmann M. Streptococcus pneumoniae Type 1 Pilus - A Multifunctional Tool for Optimized Host Interaction. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:615924. [PMID: 33633703 PMCID: PMC7899983 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.615924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae represents a major Gram-positive human pathogen causing bacterial pneumonia, otitis media, meningitis, and other invasive diseases. Several pneumococcal isolates show increasing resistance rates against antibacterial agents. A variety of virulence factors promote pneumococcal pathogenicity with varying importance in different stages of host infection. Virulence related hair-like structures ("pili") are complex, surface located protein arrays supporting proper host interaction. In the last two decades different types of pneumococcal pili have been identified: pilus-1 (P1) and pilus-2 (P2) are formed by the catalytic activity of sortases that covalently assemble secreted polypeptide pilin subunits in a defined order and finally anchor the resulting pilus in the peptidoglycan. Within the long pilus fiber the presence of intramolecular isopeptide bonds confer high stability to the sequentially arranged individual pilins. This mini review will focus on S. pneumoniae TIGR4 P1 molecular architecture, the subunits it builds and provides insights into P1 sortase-mediated assembly. The complex P1 architecture (anchor-/backbone-/tip-subunits) allows the specific interaction with various target structures facilitating different steps of colonization, invasion and spreading within the host. Optimized pilin subunit confirmation supports P1 function under physiological conditions. Finally, aspects of P1- host interplay are summarized, including recent insights into P1 mechanobiology, which have important implications for P1 mediated pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Markus Hilleringmann
- FG Protein Biochemistry & Cellular Microbiology, Department of Applied Sciences and Mechatronics, Munich University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany
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Iovino F, Nannapaneni P, Henriques-Normark B, Normark S. The impact of the ancillary pilus-1 protein RrgA of Streptococcus pneumoniae on colonization and disease. Mol Microbiol 2020; 113:650-658. [PMID: 32185835 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, the pneumococcus, is an important commensal resident of the human nasopharynx. Carriage is usually asymptomatic, however, S. pneumoniae can become invasive and spread from the upper respiratory tract to the lungs causing pneumonia, and to other organs to cause severe diseases such as bacteremia and meningitis. Several pneumococcal proteins important for its disease-causing capability have been described and many are expressed on the bacterial surface. The surface located pneumococcal type-1 pilus has been associated with virulence and the inflammatory response, and it is present in 20%-30% of clinical isolates. Its tip protein RrgA has been shown to be a major adhesin to human cells and to promote invasion through the blood-brain barrier. In this review we discuss recent findings of the impact of RrgA on bacterial colonization of the upper respiratory tract and on pneumococcal virulence, and use epidemiological data and genome-mining to suggest trade-off mechanisms potentially explaining the rather low prevalence of pilus-1 expressing pneumococci in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Iovino
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Priyanka Nannapaneni
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Birgitta Henriques-Normark
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE) and Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC), Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Staffan Normark
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE) and Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC), Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore, Singapore
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6
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The virulence domain of Shigella IcsA contains a subregion with specific host cell adhesion function. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227425. [PMID: 31910229 PMCID: PMC6946128 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Shigella species cause bacillary dysentery, especially among young individuals. Shigellae target the human colon for invasion; however, the initial adhesion mechanism is poorly understood. The Shigella surface protein IcsA, in addition to its role in actin-based motility, acts as a host cell adhesin through unknown mechanism(s). Here we confirmed the role of IcsA in cell adhesion and defined the region required for IcsA adhesin activity. Purified IcsA passenger domain was able block S. flexneri adherence and was also used as a molecular probe that recognised multiple components from host cells. The region within IcsA's functional passenger domain (aa 138-148) was identified by mutagenesis. Upon the deletion of this region, the purified IcsAΔ138-148 was found to no longer block S. flexneri adherence and had reduced ability to interact with host molecules. Furthermore, S. flexneri expressing IcsAΔ138-148 was found to be significantly defective in both cell adherence and invasion. Taken together, our data identify an adherence region within the IcsA functional domain and provides useful information for designing therapeutics for Shigella infection.
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van den Broek MFL, De Boeck I, Kiekens F, Boudewyns A, Vanderveken OM, Lebeer S. Translating Recent Microbiome Insights in Otitis Media into Probiotic Strategies. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32:e00010-18. [PMID: 31270125 PMCID: PMC6750133 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00010-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbiota of the upper respiratory tract (URT) protects the host from bacterial pathogenic colonization by competing for adherence to epithelial cells and by immune response regulation that includes the activation of antimicrobial and (anti-)inflammatory components. However, environmental or host factors can modify the microbiota to an unstable community that predisposes the host to infection or inflammation. One of the URT diseases most often encountered in children is otitis media (OM). The role of pathogenic bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis in the pathogenesis of OM is well documented. Results from next-generation-sequencing (NGS) studies reveal other bacterial taxa involved in OM, such as Turicella and Alloiococcus Such studies can also identify bacterial taxa that are potentially protective against URT infections, whose beneficial action needs to be substantiated in relevant experimental models and clinical trials. Of note, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are members of the URT microbiota and associated with a URT ecosystem that is deemed healthy, based on NGS and some experimental and clinical studies. These observations have formed the basis of this review, in which we describe the current knowledge of the molecular and clinical potential of LAB in the URT, which is currently underexplored in microbiome and probiotic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne F L van den Broek
- Environmental Ecology and Applied Microbiology Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ilke De Boeck
- Environmental Ecology and Applied Microbiology Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Filip Kiekens
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - An Boudewyns
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Olivier M Vanderveken
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
- Department of Translational Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sarah Lebeer
- Environmental Ecology and Applied Microbiology Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Subramanian K, Henriques-Normark B, Normark S. Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of the Streptococcus pneumoniae: From nasopharyngeal colonizer to intracellular pathogen. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13077. [PMID: 31251447 PMCID: PMC6899785 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a human respiratory tract pathogen and a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Although the pneumococcus is a commensal bacterium that colonizes the nasopharynx, it also causes lethal diseases such as meningitis, sepsis, and pneumonia, especially in immunocompromised patients, in the elderly, and in young children. Due to the acquisition of antibiotic resistance and the emergence of nonvaccine serotypes, the pneumococcus has been classified as one of the priority pathogens for which new antibacterials are urgently required by the World Health Organization, 2017. Understanding molecular mechanisms behind the pathogenesis of pneumococcal infections and bacterial interactions within the host is crucial to developing novel therapeutics. Previously considered to be an extracellular pathogen, it is becoming evident that pneumococci may also occasionally establish intracellular niches within the body to escape immune surveillance and spread within the host. Intracellular survival within host cells also enables pneumococci to resist many antibiotics. Within the host cell, the bacteria exist in unique vacuoles, thereby avoiding degradation by the acidic lysosomes, and modulate the expression of its virulence genes to adapt to the intracellular environment. To invade and survive intracellularly, the pneumococcus utilizes a combination of virulence factors such as pneumolysin (PLY), pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA), pneumococcal adhesion and virulence protein B (PavB), the pilus‐1 adhesin RrgA, pyruvate oxidase (SpxB), and metalloprotease (ZmpB). In this review, we discuss recent findings showing the intracellular persistence of Streptococcus pneumoniae and its underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthik Subramanian
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Birgitta Henriques-Normark
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC) and Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Staffan Normark
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC) and Singapore Centre on Environmental Life Sciences Engineering (SCELSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
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Asadi A, Razavi S, Talebi M, Gholami M. A review on anti-adhesion therapies of bacterial diseases. Infection 2018; 47:13-23. [PMID: 30276540 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-018-1222-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infections caused by bacteria are a foremost cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. The common strategy of treating bacterial infections is by local or systemic administration of antimicrobial agents. Currently, the increasing antibiotic resistance is a serious and global problem. Since the most important agent for infection is bacteria attaching to host cells, hence, new techniques and attractive approaches that interfere with the ability of the bacteria to adhere to tissues of the host or detach them from the tissues at the early stages of infection are good therapeutic strategies. METHODS All available national and international databanks were searched using the search keywords. Here, we review various approaches to anti-adhesion therapy, including use of receptor and adhesion analogs, dietary constituents, sublethal concentrations of antibiotics, and adhesion-based vaccines. RESULTS Altogether, the findings suggest that interference with bacterial adhesion serves as a new means to fight infectious diseases. CONCLUSION Anti-adhesion-based therapies can be effective in prevention and treatment of bacterial infections, but further work is needed to elucidate underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arezoo Asadi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shabnam Razavi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Malihe Talebi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Gholami
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The Pilus-1 proteins, RrgA, RrgB and RrgC of S. pneumoniae have been previously assessed for their role in infection, invasive disease and as possible vaccine candidates. In this study we have investigated the glycan binding repertoire of all three Pilus-1 proteins, identifying that the tip adhesin RrgA has the broadest glycan recognition of the three proteins, binding to maltose/cellobiose, α/β linked galactose and blood group A and H antigens. RrgB only bound mannose, while RrgC bound a subset of glycans also recognized by RrgA. Adherence of S. pneumoniae TIGR4 to epithelial cells was tested using four of the oligosaccharides identified through the glycan array analysis as competitive inhibitors. The blood group H trisaccharide provided the best blocking of S. pneumoniae TIGR4 adherence. Adherence is the first step in disease, and host glycoconjugates are a common target for many adhesins. This study has identified Pilus-1 proteins as new lectins involved in the targeting of host glycosylation by S. pneumoniae.
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Rahman NA, Sharudin A, Diah S, Muharram SH. Serotyping of Brunei pneumococcal clinical strains and the investigation of their capability to adhere and invade a brain endothelium model. Microb Pathog 2017; 110:352-358. [PMID: 28711510 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pneumococcal infections have caused morbidity and mortality globally. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci) are commensal bacteria that colonize the nasopharynx, asymptomatically. From there, pneumococci can spread in the lungs causing pneumonia and disseminate in the bloodstream causing bacteremia (sepsis) and reach the brain leading to meningitis. Endothelial cells are one of the most important components of the blood-brain barrier that separates the blood from the brain and plays the first protective role against pneumococcal entry. Thus this study aimed to investigate on the ability of non-meningitis pneumococcal clinical strains to adhere and invade a brain endothelium model. METHODS Two pneumococcal Brunei clinical strains were serotyped by multiplex PCR method using oligonucleotide sequences derived from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A validated immortalised mouse brain endothelial cell line (bEnd.3) was used as a brain endothelium model for the study of the pneumococcal breach of the blood-brain barrier using an adherence and invasion assay. RESULTS Both of the pneumococcal clinical strains were found to be serotype 19F, a common circulating serotype in Southeast Asia and globally and possess the ability to adhere and invade the brain endothelial cells. CONCLUSION In addition, this is the first report on the serotype identification of pneumococci in Brunei Darussalam and their application on a brain endothelium model. Further studies are required to understand the virulence capabilities of the clinical strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Adhwa Rahman
- Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah Sa'adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Aishah Sharudin
- School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Suwarni Diah
- Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah Sa'adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Siti Hanna Muharram
- Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah Sa'adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
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