Functional comparison of mouse CIRE/mouse DC-SIGN and human DC-SIGN

The immunogenicity of p24 protein from HIV-1 virus is strongly supported and modulated by coupling with liposomes and mannan

Anti-viral and anti-tumor vaccines aim to induce cytotoxic CD8+ T cells (CTL) and antibodies. Conserved protein antigens, such as p24 from human immunodeficiency virus, represent promising component for elicitation CTLs, nevertheless with suboptimal immunogenicity, if formulated as recombinant protein. To enhance immunogenicity and CTL response, recombinant proteins may be targeted to dendritic cells (DC) for cross presentation on MHCI, where mannose receptor and/or other lectin receptors could play an important role. Here, we constructed liposomal carrier-based vaccine composed of recombinant p24 antigen bound by metallochelating linkage onto surface of nanoliposomes with surface mannans coupled by aminooxy ligation. Generated mannosylated proteonanoliposomes were analyzed by dynamic light scattering, isothermal titration, and electron microscopy. Using murine DC line MutuDC and murine bone marrow derived DC (BMDC) we evaluated their immunogenicity and immunomodulatory activity. We show that p24 mannosylated proteonanoliposomes activate DC for enhanced MHCI, MHCII and CD40, CD80, and CD86 surface expression both on MutuDC and BMDC. p24 mannosylated liposomes were internalized by MutuDC with p24 intracellular localization within 1 to 3 h. The combination of metallochelating and aminooxy ligation could be used simultaneously to generate nanoliposomal adjuvanted recombinant protein-based vaccines versatile for combination of recombinant antigens relevant for antibody and CTL elicitation.

Strategy and clinical application of up-regulating cross presentation by DCs in anti-tumor therapy

The cross presentation of exogenous antigen (Ag) by dendritic cells (DCs) facilitates a diversified mode of T-cell activation, orchestrates specific humoral and cellular immunity, and contributes to an efficient anti-tumor immune response. DCs-mediated cross presentation is subject to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including the homing and phenotype of DCs, the spatiotemporal trafficking and degradation kinetics of Ag, and multiple microenvironmental clues, with many details largely unexplored. Here, we systemically review the current mechanistic understanding and regulation strategies of cross presentation by heterogeneous DC populations. We also provide insights into the future exploitation of DCs cross presentation for a better clinical efficacy in anti-tumor therapy.

IL-4/IL-13 polarization of macrophages enhances Ebola virus glycoprotein-dependent infection

BACKGROUND

Ebolavirus (EBOV) outbreaks, while sporadic, cause tremendous morbidity and mortality. No therapeutics or vaccines are currently licensed; however, a vaccine has shown promise in clinical trials. A critical step towards development of effective therapeutics is a better understanding of factors that govern host susceptibility to this pathogen. As macrophages are an important cell population targeted during virus replication, we explore the effect of cytokine polarization on macrophage infection.

METHODS/MAIN FINDINGS

We utilized a BSL2 EBOV model virus, infectious, recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus encoding EBOV glycoprotein (GP) (rVSV/EBOV GP) in place of its native glycoprotein. Macrophages polarized towards a M2-like anti-inflammatory state by combined IL-4 and IL-13 treatment were more susceptible to rVSV/EBOV GP, but not to wild-type VSV (rVSV/G), suggesting that EBOV GP-dependent entry events were enhanced by these cytokines. Examination of RNA expression of known surface receptors that bind and internalize filoviruses demonstrated that IL-4/IL-13 stimulated expression of the C-type lectin receptor DC-SIGN in human macrophages and addition of the competitive inhibitor mannan abrogated IL-4/IL-13 enhanced infection. Two murine DC-SIGN-like family members, SIGNR3 and SIGNR5, were upregulated by IL-4/IL-13 in murine macrophages, but only SIGNR3 enhanced virus infection in a mannan-inhibited manner, suggesting that murine SIGNR3 plays a similar role to human DC-SIGN. In vivo IL-4/IL-13 administration significantly increased virus-mediated mortality in a mouse model and transfer of ex vivo IL-4/IL-13-treated murine peritoneal macrophages into the peritoneal cavity of mice enhanced pathogenesis.

SIGNIFICANCE

These studies highlight the ability of macrophage polarization to influence EBOV GP-dependent virus replication in vivo and ex vivo, with M2a polarization upregulating cell surface receptor expression and thereby enhancing virus replication. Our findings provide an increased understanding of the host factors in macrophages governing susceptibility to filoviruses and identify novel murine receptors mediating EBOV entry.

Disruption of Immune Homeostasis in Human Dendritic Cells via Regulation of Autophagy and Apoptosis by Porphyromonas gingivalis

As fundamental processes of immune homeostasis, autophagy, and apoptosis must be maintained to mitigate risk of chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases. Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by oral microbial dysbiosis, and dysregulation of dendritic cell (DC) and T cell responses. The aim of this study was to elucidate the underlying mechanisms by which the oral microbe Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) manipulates dendritic cell signaling to perturb both autophagy and apoptosis. Using a combination of Western blotting, flow cytometry, qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence analysis, we show a pivotal role for the minor (Mfa1) fimbriae of P. gingivalis in nuclear/cytoplasmic shuttling of Akt and FOXO1 in human monocyte-derived DCs. Mfa1-induced Akt nuclear localization and activation ultimately induced mTOR. Activation of the Akt/mTOR axis downregulated intracellular LC3II, also known as Atg8, required for autophagosome formation and maturation. Use of allosteric panAkt inhibitor MK2206 and mTOR inhibitor rapamycin confirmed the role of Akt/mTOR signaling in autophagy inhibition by P. gingivalis in DCs. Interestingly, this pathway was also linked to induction of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2, decreased caspase-3 cleavage and decreased expression of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bim, thus promoting longevity of host DCs. Addition of ABT-199 peptide to disrupt the interaction of antiapoptotic Bcl2 and its proapoptotic partners BAK/BAX restored apoptotic death to P. gingivalis-infected DC cells. In summary, we have identified the underlying mechanism by which P. gingivalis promotes its own survival and that of its host DCs.

Metabolic labeling of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 to elucidate the effect of gp120 glycosylation on antigen uptake

The glycan shield on the envelope glycoprotein gp120 of HIV-1 has drawn immense attention as a vulnerable site for broadly neutralizing antibodies and for its significant impact on host adaptive immune response to HIV-1. Glycosylation sites and glycan composition/structure at each site on gp120 along with the interactions of gp120 glycan shield with broadly neutralizing antibodies have been extensively studied. However, a method for directly and selectively tracking gp120 glycans has been lacking. Here, we integrate metabolic labeling and click chemistry technology with recombinant gp120 expression to demonstrate that gp120 glycans could be specifically labeled and directly detected. Selective labeling of gp120 by N-azidoacetylmannosamine (ManNAz) and N-azidoacetylgalactosamine (GalNAz) incorporation into the gp120 glycan shield was characterized by MS of tryptic glycopeptides. By using metabolically labeled gp120, we investigated the impact of gp120 glycosylation on its interaction with host cells and demonstrated that oligomannose enrichment and sialic acid deficiency drastically enhanced gp120 uptake by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. Collectively, our data reveal an effective labeling and detection method for gp120, serving as a tool for functional characterization of the gp120 glycans and potentially other glycosylated proteins.

Murine and Non-Human Primate Dendritic Cell Targeting Nanoparticles for in Vivo Generation of Regulatory T-Cells

Porous silicon nanoparticles (pSiNP), modified to target dendritic cells (DC), provide an alternate strategy for the delivery of immunosuppressive drugs. Here, we aimed to develop a DC-targeting pSiNP displaying c-type lectin, dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN), and CD11c monoclonal antibodies. The in vivo tracking of these fluorescent DC-targeting nanoparticles was assessed in both C57BL/6 mice and common marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus) by intravenous injection (20 mg/kg). Rapamycin and ovalbumin (OVA)_323-339 peptide loaded pSiNP were employed to evaluate their ability to generate murine CD4⁺CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ regulatory T-cells in vivo within OVA sensitized mice. In vivo, pSiNP migrated to the liver, kidneys, lungs, and spleen in both mice and marmosets. Flow cytometry confirmed pSiNP uptake by splenic and peripheral blood DC when functionalized with targeting antibodies. C57BL/6 OVA sensitized mice injected with CD11c-pSiNP loaded with rapamycin + OVA_323-339 produced a 5-fold higher number of splenic regulatory T-cells compared to control mice, at 40 days post-pSiNP injection. These results demonstrate the importance of the immobilized targeting antibodies to enhance cellular uptake and enable the in vivo generation of splenic regulatory T-cells.

Mechanisms of Filovirus Entry

Filovirus entry into cells is complex, perhaps as complex as any viral entry mechanism identified to date. However, over the past 10 years, the important events required for filoviruses to enter into the endosomal compartment and fuse with vesicular membranes have been elucidated (Fig. 1). Here, we highlight the important steps that are required for productive entry of filoviruses into mammalian cells.

Lipoarabinomannan binding to lactosylceramide in lipid rafts is essential for the phagocytosis of mycobacteria by human neutrophils

Pathogenic mycobacteria use virulence factors, including mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM), to survive in host phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils. We assessed the roles of lactosylceramide (LacCer, CDw17)-enriched lipid rafts in the phagocytosis of mycobacteria by human neutrophils and in the intracellular fate of phagocytosed mycobacteria. We showed that the association of the Src family kinase (SFK) Lyn with C24 fatty acid chain-containing LacCer was essential for the phagocytosis of mycobacteria by neutrophils. Assays with LacCer-containing liposomes, LacCer-coated plastic plates, and LAM-coated beads demonstrated that the phagocytosis of mycobacteria was mediated through the binding of LacCer to LAM. Both ManLAM from pathogenic species and phosphoinositol-capped LAM (PILAM) from nonpathogenic Mycobacterium smegmatis bound equivalently to LacCer to stimulate phagocytosis. However, PILAM from an M. smegmatis α1,2-mannosyltransferase deletion mutant (ΔMSMEG_4247), lacking the α1,2-monomannose side branches of the LAM mannan core, did not bind to LacCer or induce phagocytosis. An anti-LacCer antibody immunoprecipitated the SFK Hck from the phagosomes of neutrophils that internalized nonpathogenic mycobacteria but not from those that internalized pathogenic mycobacteria. Furthermore, knockdown of Hck by short inhibitory RNA abolished the fusion of lysosomes with phagosomes containing nonpathogenic mycobacteria. Further analysis showed that ManLAM, but not PILAM, inhibited the association of Hck with LacCer-enriched lipid rafts in phagosomal membranes, effectively blocking phagolysosome formation. Together, these findings suggest that pathogenic mycobacteria use ManLAM not only for binding to LacCer-enriched lipid rafts and entering neutrophils but also for disrupting signaling through Hck-coupled, LacCer-enriched lipid rafts and preventing phagolysosome formation.

Structural basis for selective recognition of endogenous and microbial polysaccharides by macrophage receptor SIGN-R1

SIGN-R1 is a principal receptor for microbial polysaccharides uptake and is responsible for C3 fixation via an unusual complement activation pathway on splenic marginal zone macrophages. In these macrophages, SIGN-R1 is also involved in anti-inflammatory activity of intravenous immunoglobulin by direct interaction with sialylated Fcs. The high-resolution crystal structures of SIGN-R1 carbohydrate recognition domain and its complexes with dextran sulfate or sialic acid, and of the sialylated Fc antibody provide insights into SIGN-R1’s selective recognition of a-2,6-sialylated glycoproteins. Unexpectedly, an additional binding site has been found in the SIGNR1 carbohydrate recognition domain, structurally separate from the calcium-dependent carbohydrate-binding site. This secondary binding site could bind repetitive molecular patterns, as observed in microbial polysaccharides, in a calcium-independent manner. These two binding sites may allow SIGNR1 to simultaneously bind both immune glycoproteins and microbial polysaccharide components, accommodating SIGN-R1’s ability to relate the recognition of microbes to the activation of the classical complement pathway.

Targeting antigens to dendritic cell receptors for vaccine development

Dendritic cells (DCs) are highly specialized antigen presenting cells of the immune system which play a key role in regulating immune responses. Depending on the method of antigen delivery, DCs stimulate immune responses or induce tolerance. As a consequence of the dual function of DCs, DCs are studied in the context of immunotherapy for both cancer and autoimmune diseases. In vaccine development, a major aim is to induce strong, specific T-cell responses. This is achieved by targeting antigen to cell surface molecules on DCs that efficiently channel the antigen into endocytic compartments for loading onto MHC molecules and stimulation of T-cell responses. The most attractive cell surface receptors, expressed on DCs used as targets for antigen delivery for cancer and other diseases, are discussed.

In vivo targeting of human DC-SIGN drastically enhances CD8⁺ T-cell-mediated protective immunity

Vaccination is one of the oldest yet still most effective methods to prevent infectious diseases. However, eradication of intracellular pathogens and treatment of certain diseases like cancer requiring efficient cytotoxic immune responses remain a medical challenge. In mice, a successful approach to induce strong cytotoxic CD8⁺ T-cell (CTL) reactions is to target antigens to DCs using specific antibodies against surface receptors in combination with adjuvants. A major drawback for translating this strategy into one for the clinic is the lack of analogous targets in human DCs. DC-SIGN (DC-specific-ICAM3-grabbing-nonintegrin/CD209) is a C-type lectin receptor with potent endocytic capacity and a highly restricted expression on human immature DCs. Therefore, DC-SIGN represents an ideal candidate for DC targeting. Using transgenic mice that express human DC-SIGN under the control of the murine CD11c promoter (hSIGN mice), we explored the efficacy of anti-DC-SIGN antibodies to target antigens to DCs and induce protective immune responses in vivo. We show that anti-DC-SIGN antibodies conjugated to OVA induced strong and persistent antigen-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell responses, which efficiently protected from infection with OVA-expressing Listeria monocytogenes. Thus, we propose DC targeting via DC-SIGN as a promising strategy for novel vaccination protocols against intracellular pathogens.

Quantitative expression of C-type lectin receptors in humans and mice

C-type lectin receptors and their adaptor molecules are involved in the recognition of glycosylated self-antigens and pathogens. However, little is known about the species- and organ-specific expression profiles of these molecules. We therefore determined the mRNA expression levels of Dectin-1, MR1, MR2, DC-SIGN, Syk, Card-9, Bcl-10, Malt-1, Src, Dec-205, Galectin-1, Tim-3, Trem-1, and DAP-12 in 11 solid organs of human and mice. Mouse organs revealed lower mRNA levels of most molecules compared to spleen. However, Dec-205 and Galectin-1 in thymus, Src in brain, MR2, Card-9, Bcl-10, Src, and Dec-205 in small intestine, MR2, Bcl-10, Src, Galectin-1 in kidney, and Src and Galectin-1 in muscle were at least 2-fold higher expressed compared to spleen. Human lung, liver and heart expressed higher mRNA levels of most genes compared to spleen. Dectin-1, MR1, Syk and Trem-1 mRNA were strongly up-regulated upon ischemia-reperfusion injury in murine kidney. Tim3, DAP-12, Card-9, DC-SIGN and MR2 were further up-regulated during renal fibrosis. Murine kidney showed higher DAP-12, Syk, Card-9 and Dectin-1 mRNA expression during the progression of lupus nephritis. Thus, the organ-, and species-specific expression of C-type lectin receptors is different between mice and humans which must be considered in the interpretation of related studies.

Antigen delivery to plasmacytoid dendritic cells via BST2 induces protective T cell-mediated immunity

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) are capable of presenting Ags to T cells in a tolerogenic or immunogenic manner depending on the formulation of the Ag and the mode of stimulation. It has not been investigated whether effective adaptive immune responses useful for vaccination can be induced by Ab-mediated Ag targeting to PDCs in vivo. In this study, we show that Ag delivered to murine PDCs via bone marrow stromal cell Ag 2 (BST2)/CD317 in combination with TLR agonists as adjuvants is specifically presented by PDCs in vivo and elicits strong cellular and humoral immune responses. These include IFN-γ production by CD4(+) T cells and high Ab titers with a broad range of IgG isotypes. In addition, BST2-mediated Ag delivery in the presence of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid as adjuvant induces cytotoxic T lymphocytes that are functional in vivo. A single immunization with Ag-fused anti-BST2 Ab together with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid as adjuvant is sufficient to trigger protective immunity against subsequent viral infection and tumor growth. We conclude that despite the potential tolerogenic properties of PDCs, Ag targeting to PDCs in combination with TLR agonists as adjuvants is an effective vaccination strategy.

Suppressors of cytokine signaling inhibit effector T cell responses during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Protective immune responses during Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) infection are regulated at multiple levels and critically dependent on the balance in the secretion of pro-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines. A key factor that governs this balance at the cellular level is suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS). We recently demonstrated that toll-like receptor 2 and dendritic cell (DC)-SIGNR1 differentially regulate SOCS1 expression in DCs during M. tuberculosis infection. This consecutively regulated IL-12 production and determined M. tuberculosis survival. In this study, we characterized the role of SOCS1 in regulating effector responses from CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells during M. tuberculosis infection. Our data indicate that T cells from M. tuberculosis-infected mice show increased and differential association of SOCS1 with CD3 and CD28, when compared with uninfected mice. While SOCS1 displays increased association with CD3 than CD28 in CD4(+) T cells; SOCS1 is associated more with CD28 than CD3 in CD8(+) T cells. Further, SOCS1 shows increased association with IL-12 and IL-2 receptors in both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from infected mice when compared with naive mice. Silencing SOCS1 in T cells increased signal transduction from T cell receptor (TCR) and CD28 with enhanced activation of key signaling molecules and proliferation. Significantly, SOCS1-silenced T cells mediated enhanced clearance of M. tuberculosis inside macrophages. Finally, adoptive transfer of SOCS1-silenced T cells in M. tuberculosis-infected mice mediated significant reduction in M. tuberculosis loads in spleen. These results exemplify the negative role played by SOCS1 during T cell priming and effector functions during M. tuberculosis infection.

Dendritic cell-directed lentivector vaccine induces antigen-specific immune responses against murine melanoma

Lentivectors are potential vaccine delivery vehicles because they can efficiently transduce a variety of non-dividing cells, including antigen-presenting cells, and do not cause expression of extra viral proteins. To improve safety while retaining efficiency, a dendritic cell (DC)-specific lentivector was constructed by pseudotyping the vector with an engineered viral glycoprotein derived from Sindbis virus. We assessed the level of anti-tumor immunity conferred by this engineered lentivector encoding the melanoma antigen gp100 in a mouse model. Footpad injection of the engineered lentivectors results in the best antigen-specific immune response as compared with subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injections. A single prime vaccination of the engineered lentivectors can elicit a high frequency (up to 10%) of gp100-specific CD8(+) T cells in peripheral blood 3 weeks after the vaccination and this response will be maintained at around 5% for up to 8 weeks. We found that these engineered lentivectors elicited relatively low levels of anti-vector neutralizing antibody responses. Importantly, direct injection of this engineered lentivector inhibited the growth of aggressive B16 murine melanoma. These data suggest that DC-specific lentivectors can be a novel and alternative vaccine carrier with the potential to deliver effective anti-tumor immunity for cancer immunotherapy.

New monoclonal anti-mouse DC-SIGN antibodies reactive with acetone-fixed cells

Mouse DC-SIGN CD209a is a type II transmembrane protein, one of a family of C-type lectin genes syntenic and homologous to human DC-SIGN. Current anti-mouse DC-SIGN monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are unable to react with DC-SIGN in acetone-fixed cells, limiting the chance to visualize DC-SIGN in tissue sections. We first produced rabbit polyclonal PAb-DSCYT14 against a 14-aa peptide in the cytosolic domain of mouse DC-SIGN, and it specifically detected DC-SIGN and not the related lectins, SIGN-R1 and SIGN-R3 expressed in transfected CHO cells. MAbs were generated by immunizing rats and DC-SIGN knockout mice with the extracellular region of mouse DC-SIGN. Five rat IgG2a or IgM MAbs, named BMD10, 11, 24, 25, and 30, were selected and each MAb specifically detected DC-SIGN by FACS and Western blots, although BMD25 was cross-reactive to SIGN-R1. Two mouse IgG2c MAbs MMD2 and MMD3 interestingly bound mouse DC-SIGN but at 10 fold higher levels than the rat MAbs. When the binding epitopes of the new BMD and two other commercial rat anti-DC-SIGN MAbs, 5H10 and LWC06, were examined by competition assays, the epitopes of BMD11, 24, and LWC06 were identical or closely overlapping while BMD10, 30, and 5H10 were shown to bind different epitopes. MMD2 and MMD3 epitopes were on a 3rd noncompeting region of mouse DC-SIGN. DC-SIGN expressed on the cell surface was sensitive to collagenase treatment, as monitored by polyclonal and MAb. These new reagents should be helpful to probe the biology of DC-SIGN in vivo.

Expression of C-type lectin, SIGNR3, on subsets of dendritic cells, macrophages, and monocytes

The C-type lectin SIGNR3 is a mouse homologue of human DC-SIGN, which shares carbohydrate-binding specificity with human DC-SIGN. However, the expression profile of SIGNR3 is largely unknown. To examine the expression of SIGNR3 in immune cells, we generated SIGNR3-specific mAb and investigated SIGNR3 expression in vivo. SIGNR3 was expressed on a fraction of MHC II(+) DCs and Mϕs in the dermis and CD115(+)Ly6C(int-low) monocytes in the blood and BM. In the LNs, SIGNR3(+) cells localized adjacent to PNAd(+) HEV-like vessels. They were also found in interfollicular regions in sLNs but not mLNs. Those SIGNR3(+) cells expressed CD11b and variable levels of CD11c and MHC II. As in LNs, SIGNR3 was expressed on a large proportion of the CD11b(+)CD11c(int-high) cells in the spleen. In the lung, SIGNR3(+) cells belonged to the CD11b(+)CD11c(int) population, and Mϕs in the airway and lung faintly expressed SIGNR3. When PKH67-labeled CD115(+)Ly6C(high) BM monocytes were transferred into normal recipients, they up-regulated SIGNR3 expression along with the decrease in Ly6C expression during the circulation and upon arrival at the peripheral LNs through HEV. In addition, CD11b(high)Ly6C(high) monocytes that entered sLNs differentiated into CD11b(+) DCs in a couple of days, whereas those in the spleen, mLNs, and lung differentiated into CD11c(int) monocytic cells. These results suggest that SIGNR3 is a new differentiation marker for myeloid mononuclear cells and indicate that some DCs, especially in the sLNs, are possibly replenished by Ly6C(high) monocytes.

HIV-1 Gag-specific immunity induced by a lentivector-based vaccine directed to dendritic cells

Lentivectors (LVs) have attracted considerable interest for their potential as a vaccine delivery vehicle. In this study, we evaluate in mice a dendritic cell (DC)-directed LV system encoding the Gag protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (LV-Gag) as a potential vaccine for inducing an anti-HIV immune response. The DC-directed specificity is achieved through pseudotyping the vector with an engineered Sindbis virus glycoprotein capable of selectively binding to the DC-SIGN protein. A single immunization by this vector induces a durable HIV Gag-specific immune response. We investigated the antigen-specific immunity and T-cell memory generated by a prime/boost vaccine regimen delivered by either successive LV-Gag injections or a DNA prime/LV-Gag boost protocol. We found that both prime/boost regimens significantly enhance cellular and humoral immune responses. Importantly, a heterologous DNA prime/LV-Gag boost regimen results in superior Gag-specific T-cell responses as compared with a DNA prime/adenovector boost immunization. It induces not only a higher magnitude response, as measured by Gag-specific tetramer analysis and intracellular IFN-gamma staining, but also a better quality of response evidenced by a wider mix of cytokines produced by the Gag-specific CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells. A boosting immunization with LV-Gag also generates T cells reactive to a broader range of Gag-derived epitopes. These results demonstrate that this DC-directed LV immunization is a potent modality for eliciting anti-HIV immune responses.

Targeting glycan modified OVA to murine DC-SIGN transgenic dendritic cells enhances MHC class I and II presentation

Dendritic cells have gained much interest in the field of anti-cancer vaccine development because of their central function in immune regulation. One of the receptors that facilitate DC-specific targeting of antigens is the DC-specific C-type lectin DC-SIGN. Although DC-SIGN is specifically expressed on human DCs, its murine homologue is not present on any murine DC subsets, which makes in vivo evaluation of potential DC-SIGN targeting vaccines very difficult. Here we describe the use of DC-SIGN transgenic mice, as a good model system to evaluate DC-SIGN targeting vaccines. We demonstrate that glycan modification of OVA with DC-SIGN targeting glycans, targets antigen specifically to bone marrow (BM)** derived DCs and splenic DCs. Glycan modification of OVA with Lewis X or Lewis B oligosaccharides, that target DC-SIGN transgenic DCs, resulted in efficient 10-fold induction of OT-II compared to unmodified OVA. Interestingly, glycan modified OVA proteins were significantly cross-presented to OT-I T cells by wild type DC, 10-fold more than native OVA, and the expression of DC-SIGN further enhanced this cross-presentation. Targeting of glycosylated OVA was neither accompanied with any DC maturation, nor the production of inflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokines. Thus, we conclude that glycan modification of antigens and targeting to DC-SIGN enhance both CD4 and CD8 T cell responses. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that DC-SIGN transgenic mice are valuable tool for optimisation and efficiency testing of DC vaccination strategies that are designed to target in particular the human DC-SIGN receptor.

A murine DC-SIGN homologue contributes to early host defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The C-type lectin dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3 grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) mediates the innate immune recognition of microbial carbohydrates. We investigated the function of this molecule in the host response to pathogens in vivo, by generating mouse lines lacking the DC-SIGN homologues SIGNR1, SIGNR3, and SIGNR5. Resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis was impaired only in SIGNR3-deficient animals. SIGNR3 was expressed in lung phagocytes during infection, and interacted with M. tuberculosis bacilli and mycobacterial surface glycoconjugates to induce secretion of critical host defense inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF). SIGNR3 signaling was dependent on an intracellular tyrosine-based motif and the tyrosine kinase Syk. Thus, the mouse DC-SIGN homologue SIGNR3 makes a unique contribution to protection of the host against a pulmonary bacterial pathogen.

Toll-like receptor 2 and DC-SIGNR1 differentially regulate suppressors of cytokine signaling 1 in dendritic cells during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

A hallmark of protective immunity during Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) infection is the regulated secretion of pro-inflammatory and regulatory cytokines. Suppressors of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) are key regulators of cytokine secretion and function. In this study we investigated regulation of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and dendritic cell-specific ICAM-3 grabbing non-integrin receptor 1 (DC-SIGNR1)-mediated SOCS1 expression in DCs during M. tb infection. We show that, compared with TLR2, stimulating DC-SIGNR1 on DCs induces higher SOCS1 expression and lower interleukin-12 production. Co-stimulating DC-SIGNR1 and TLR2 differentially regulates SOCS1 expression depending on the relative concentration of their ligands. Stimulating DC-SIGNR1 with M. tb infection increases SOCS1 expression, while stimulating TLR2 with M. tb infection reduces SOCS1 expression. Knockdown of SOCS1 in DCs by siRNA enhances interleukin-12 transcription and protein expression upon DC-SIGNR1 stimulation. Raf-1 and Syk differentially regulate TLR2- and DC-SIGNR1-mediated SOCS1 expression. In addition, DC-SIGNR1 shows greater association with SOCS1 when compared with TLR2. Interestingly, compared with healthy asymptomatic individuals, peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with active tuberculosis disease showed higher expression of SOCS1, which was reduced following chemotherapy. Similarly, stimulating DC-SIGNR1 on DCs from M. tb-infected TLR2(-/-) mice enhanced SOCS1 expression that was reduced following chemotherapy. Further, knockdown of SOCS1 in mouse DCs or human peripheral blood mononuclear cells resulted in increased killing of virulent M. tb. These results indicate that TLR2 and DC-SIGNR1 differentially regulate SOCS1 expression during M. tb infection. This in turn regulates M. tb survival by governing key cytokine expression.

Porcine DC-SIGN: molecular cloning, gene structure, tissue distribution and binding characteristics

DC-SIGN, a human C-type lectin, is involved in the transmission of many enveloped viruses. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the cDNA and gene encoding porcine DC-SIGN (pDC-SIGN). The full-length pDC-SIGN cDNA encodes a type II transmembrane protein of 240 amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that pDC-SIGN, together with bovine, canis and equine DC-SIGN, are more closely related to mouse SIGNR7 and SIGNR8 than to human DC-SIGN. pDC-SIGN has the same gene structure as bovine, canis DC-SIGN and mouse SIGNR8 with eight exons. pDC-SIGN mRNA expression was detected in pig spleen, thymus, lymph node, lung, bone marrow and muscles. pDC-SIGN protein was found to express on the surface of monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells, alveolar macrophages, lymph node sinusoidal macrophage-like, dendritic-like and endothelial cells but not of monocytes, peripheral blood lymphocytes or lymph node lymphocytes. A BHK cell line stably expressing pDC-SIGN binds to human ICAM-3 and ICAM-2 immunoadhesins in a calcium-dependent manner, and enhances the transmission of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) to target cells in trans. The results will help better understand the biological role(s) of DC-SIGN family in innate immunity during the evolutionary process.

The dendritic cell subtype-restricted C-type lectin Clec9A is a target for vaccine enhancement

A novel dendritic cell (DC)-restricted molecule, Clec9A, was identified by gene expression profiling of mouse DC subtypes. Based on sequence similarity, a human ortholog was identified. Clec9A encodes a type II membrane protein with a single extracellular C-type lectin domain. Both the mouse Clec9A and human CLEC9A were cloned and expressed, and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against each were generated. Surface staining revealed that Clec9A was selective for mouse DCs and was restricted to the CD8(+) conventional DC and plasmacytoid DC subtypes. A subset of human blood DCs also expressed CLEC9A. A single injection of mice with a mAb against Clec9A, which targets antigens (Ags) to the DCs, produced a striking enhancement of antibody responses in the absence of added adjuvants or danger signals, even in mice lacking Toll-like receptor signaling pathways. Such targeting also enhanced CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses. Thus, Clec9A serves as a new marker to distinguish subtypes of both mouse and human DCs. Furthermore, targeting Ags to DCs with antibodies to Clec9A is a promising strategy to enhance the efficiency of vaccines, even in the absence of adjuvants.

Carbohydrate-mediated targeting of antigen to dendritic cells leads to enhanced presentation of antigen to T cells

The unique therapeutic value of dendritic cells (DCs) for the treatment of allergy, autoimmunity and transplant rejection is predicated upon our ability to selectively deliver antigens, drugs or nucleic acids to DCs in vivo. Here we describe a method for delivering whole protein antigens to DCs based on carbohydrate-mediated targeting of DC-expressed lectins. A series of synthetic carbohydrates was chemically-coupled to a model antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), and each conjugate was evaluated for its ability to increase the efficiency of antigen presentation by murine DCs to OVA-specific T cells (CD4(+) and CD8(+)). In vitro data are presented that demonstrate that carbohydrate modification of OVA leads to a 50-fold enhancement of presentation of antigenic peptide to CD4(+) T cells. A tenfold enhancement is observed for CD8(+) T cells; this indicates that the targeted lectin(s) can mediate cross-presentation of antigens on MHC class I. Our data indicate that the observed enhancements in antigen presentation are unique to OVA that is conjugated to complex oligosaccharides, such as a high-mannose nonasaccharide, but not to monosaccharides. Taken together, our data suggest that a DC targeting strategy that is based upon carbohydrate-lectin interactions is a promising approach for enhancing antigen presentation via class I and class II molecules.

In vivo targeting of antigens to human dendritic cells through DC-SIGN elicits stimulatory immune responses and inhibits tumor growth in grafted mouse models

Multiple cancer vaccine trials have been carried out using ex vivo generated autologous dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with tumor antigen before readministration into patients. Though promising, overall immunologic potency and clinical efficacy might be improved with more efficient DC-based therapies that avoid ex vivo manipulations, but are instead based on in vivo targeting of DCs. For initial in vivo proof of concept studies, we evaluated targeting of proteins or peptides to DCs through DC-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN). Because the biology of DC-SIGN is different between mice and humans, we assess human DC-SIGN targeting in the setting of elements of a human immune system in a mouse model. Administration of anti-DC-SIGN antibodies carrying either tetanus toxoid peptides or keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) to Rag2gammaC mice reconstituted with human immune cells raised stimulatory human T-cell responses to the respective antigen without additional adjuvant requirements. Furthermore, administration of anti-DC-SIGN antibody-KLH conjugate enhanced the adjuvant properties of KLH resulting in inhibition of RAJI (Human Burkitt's Lymphoma Cell Line) cell tumor growth in Nonobese Diabetic/Severe Combined Immunodeficient mice transplanted with human immune cells. Thus, mouse models reconstituted with human immune cells seem to be suitable for evaluating DC-targeted vaccines, and furthermore, targeting to DCs in situ via DC-SIGN may provide a promising vaccine platform for inducing strong immune responses against cancer and infectious disease agents.

Dendritic-cell immunotherapy: from ex vivo loading to in vivo targeting

The realization that dendritic cells (DCs) orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses has stimulated research on harnessing DCs to create more effective vaccines. Early clinical trials exploring autologous DCs that were loaded with antigens ex vivo to induce T-cell responses have provided proof of principle. Here, we discuss how direct targeting of antigens to DC surface receptors in vivo might replace laborious and expensive ex vivo culturing, and facilitate large-scale application of DC-based vaccination therapies.

Putative IKDCs are functionally and developmentally similar to natural killer cells, but not to dendritic cells

Interferon-producing killer dendritic cells (IKDCs) have been described as possessing the lytic potential of NK cells and the antigen-presenting capacity of dendritic cells (DCs). In this study, we examine the lytic function and antigen-presenting capacity of mouse spleen IKDCs, including those found in DC preparations. IKDCs efficiently killed NK cell targets, without requiring additional activation stimuli. However, in our hands, when exposed to protein antigen or to MHC class II peptide, IKDCs induced little or no T cell proliferation relative to conventional DCs or plasmacytoid DCs, either before or after activation with CpG, or in several disease models. Certain developmental features indicated that IKDCs resembled NK cells more than DCs. IKDCs, like NK cells, did not express the transcription factor PU.1 and were absent from recombinase activating gene-2–null, common γ-chain–null (Rag2^−/−Il2rg^−/−) mice. When cultured with IL-15 and -18, IKDCs proliferated extensively, like NK cells. Under these conditions, a proportion of expanded IKDCs and NK cells expressed high levels of surface MHC class II. However, even such MHC class II⁺ IKDCs and NK cells induced poor T cell proliferative responses compared with DCs. Thus, IKDCs resemble NK cells functionally, and neither cell type could be induced to be effective antigen-presenting cells.

Chronic ethanol exposure affects in vivo migration of hepatic dendritic cells to secondary lymphoid tissue

The mechanisms by which chronic ethanol (EtOH) consumption results in an immune-compromised state have not been fully elucidated. No studies to date have ascertained whether EtOH affects the migratory capacity of dendritic cells (DC), potent immune regulators. We hypothesized that EtOH exposure might affect hepatic and splenic DC trafficking to secondary lymphoid tissues and the resulting immune response. Hepatic DC from EtOH-treated animals migrated in greater numbers to draining lymphoid tissue than controls, whereas spleen DC were unaffected. Moreover, hepatic EtOH-exposed (E) DC induced more vigorous priming of allogeneic T cells in vivo compared with splenic EDC or controls. Altered hepatic EDC migration was independent of either CCR7 or CD11a expression, with no striking changes in surface expression of other adhesion molecules analyzed. The modified trafficking to secondary lymphoid tissue observed for hepatic EDC may play a role in the altered immune response to microbial pathogens in chronic alcohol users.

Evidence that multiple defects in murine DC-SIGN inhibit a functional interaction with pathogens

Certain viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites target dendritic cells through the interaction with the cellular attachment factor DC-SIGN, making this C-type lectin an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Studies on DC-SIGN function would be greatly aided by the establishment of a mouse model, however, it is unclear if the murine (m) homologue of human (h) DC-SIGN also binds to pathogens. Here, we investigated the interaction of mDC-SIGN, also termed CIRE, with the Ebolavirus glycoprotein (EBOV-GP), a ligand of hDC-SIGN. We found that mDC-SIGN neither binds EBOV-GP nor enhances infection by reporterviruses pseudotyped with EBOV-GP. Analysis of chimeras between mDC-SIGN and hDC-SIGN provided evidence that determinants in the carbohydrate recognition domain and in the neck domain of mDC-SIGN inhibit a functional interaction with EBOV-GP. Moreover, mDC-SIGN was found be monomeric, suggesting that lack of multimerization, which is believed to be required for efficient pathogen recognition by hDC-SIGN, might be one factor that prevents binding of mDC-SIGN to EBOV-GP. Our results suggest that mDC-SIGN on murine dendritic cells is not an adequate model for pathogen interactions with hDC-SIGN.