Antimicrobial stewardship of antiseptics that are pertinent to wounds: the need for a united approach

Antibacterial activity and mechanism of Stevia extract against antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli by interfering with the permeability of the cell wall and the membrane

Natural plant-derived compounds with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity have become an effective strategy against multidrug-resistant bacteria. The present study was designed to compare the antibacterial activity of six chlorogenic acid (CA) isomers extracted from stevia and investigated the underlying antibacterial mechanisms involved. The results indicated that isochlorogenic acid C (ICAC) exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity against the tested bacteria, especially E. coli, at a 2 mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 8 mg/mL minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). At the MBC, ICAC inhibited 72.66% of the clinical multidrug-resistant strains. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that ICAC induced considerable morphological alterations in E. coli ATCC25922 and C4E2. The significant increase in the activity of extracellular alkaline phosphatase (AKP) indicated that ICAC damages the permeability of the bacterial cell wall. Additionally, the intracellular membrane (IM) permeability and the content of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a main component of the outer membrane (OM), were determined. The significant decrease in LPS content and increased leakage of intracellular proteins and K+ from E. coli indicated that ICAC could induce the exfoliation of OM and disrupt IM permeability, resulting in the loss of barrier function. The uptake of propidium iodide (PI), a compromised cell membrane nucleic acid stain, and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) further demonstrated that ICAC disrupted IM integrity. Moreover, the bactericidal effect and damage to bacterial microstructural function occurred in a dose-dependent manner. These data demonstrate that ICAC has excellent antibacterial activity and is a promising approach for overcoming the antibiotic resistance of pathogenic bacteria.

In Vitro Effect of Eucalyptus Essential Oils and Antiseptics (Chlorhexidine Gluconate and Povidone-Iodine) against Bacterial Isolates from Equine Wounds

Considering the increasing antibiotics resistance, there has been a propensity to replace them with antiseptics when it comes to wound management and treatment. Nevertheless, in recent years, there have been reports regarding resistance to antiseptics by some bacterial strains. There is also concern about the environmental impact of these substances. The aim of this study was to compare the antimicrobial efficacy of antiseptics and eucalyptus essential oils on bacterial strains from horse's wounds. We used twelve Escherichia coli, eight Staphylococcus aureus, two Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, one Staphylococcus vitulinus and one Staphylococcus saprophyticus strains from equine wounds. The effect of Eucalyptus radiata essential oil, Eucalyptus globulus essential oil, povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine gluconate against the isolated strains was evaluated applying the Kirby-Baüer method. Regarding the Escherichia coli strains, E. radiata and the mixture of E. radiata and E. globulus had a better inhibitory effect than antiseptics. E. globulus had a better effect against most Staphylococcus spp. compared to E. radiata. For both Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains tested, chlorhexidine gluconate had a better inhibitory effect than povidone-iodine. The antibacterial efficacy of essential oils highlights their potential to substitute or complement the use of antiseptics and so reduce resistance to antiseptics.

Halogenated Antimicrobial Agents to Combat Drug-Resistant Pathogens

Antimicrobial resistance presents us with a potential global crisis as it undermines the abilities of conventional antibiotics to combat pathogenic microbes. The history of antimicrobial agents is replete with examples of scaffolds containing halogens. In this review, we discuss the impacts of halogen atoms in various antibiotic types and antimicrobial scaffolds and their modes of action, structure-activity relationships, and the contributions of halogen atoms in antimicrobial activity and drug resistance. Other halogenated molecules, including carbohydrates, peptides, lipids, and polymeric complexes, are also reviewed, and the effects of halogenated scaffolds on pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and factors affecting antimicrobial and antivirulence activities are presented. Furthermore, the potential of halogenation to circumvent antimicrobial resistance and rejuvenate impotent antibiotics is addressed. This review provides an overview of the significance of halogenation, the abilities of halogens to interact in biomolecular settings and enhance pharmacological properties, and their potential therapeutic usages in preventing a postantibiotic era. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Antimicrobial resistance and the increasing impotence of antibiotics are critical threats to global health. The roles and importance of halogen atoms in antimicrobial drug scaffolds have been established, but comparatively little is known of their pharmacological impacts on drug resistance and antivirulence activities. This review is the first to extensively evaluate the roles of halogen atoms in various antibiotic classes and pharmacological scaffolds and to provide an overview of their ability to overcome antimicrobial resistance.

Considerations for an ideal post-surgical wound dressing aligned with antimicrobial stewardship objectives: a scoping review

OBJECTIVE

Most surgical wounds heal by primary or secondary intention. Surgical wounds can present specific and unique challenges including wound dehiscence and surgical site infection (SSI), either of which can increase risk of morbidity and mortality. The use of antimicrobials to treat infection in these wounds is prevalent, but there is now an imperative to align treatment with reducing antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial stewardship (AMS). The aim of this review was to explore the published evidence identifying general considerations/criteria for an ideal post-surgical wound dressing in terms of overcoming potential wound healing challenges (including infection) while supporting AMS objectives.

METHOD

A scoping review examining evidence published from 1954-2021, conducted by two authors acting independently. Results were synthesised narratively and have been reported in line with PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews.

RESULTS

A total of 819 articles were initially identified and subsequently filtered to 178 for inclusion in the assessment. The search highlighted six key outcomes of interest associated with post-surgical wound dressings: wound infection; wound healing; physical attributes related to comfort, conformability and flexibility; fluid handling (e.g., blood and exudate); pain; and skin damage.

CONCLUSION

There are several challenges that can be overcome when treating a post-surgical wound with a dressing, not least the prevention and treatment of SSIs. However, it is imperative that the use of antimicrobial wound dressings is aligned with AMS programmes and alternatives to active antimicrobials investigated.

Polyhexamethylene biguanide and its antimicrobial role in wound healing: a narrative review

A wound offers an ideal environment for the growth and proliferation of a variety of microorganisms which, in some cases, may lead to localised or even systemic infections that can be catastrophic for the patient; the development of biofilms exacerbates these infections. Over the past few decades, there has been a progressive development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in microorganisms across the board in healthcare sectors. Such resistant microorganisms have arisen primarily due to the misuse and overuse of antimicrobial treatments, and the subsequent ability of microorganisms to rapidly change and mutate as a defence mechanism against treatment (e.g., antibiotics). These resistant microorganisms are now at such a level that they are of grave concern to the World Health Organization (WHO), and are one of the leading causes of illness and mortality in the 21st century. Treatment of such infections becomes imperative but presents a significant challenge for the clinician in that treatment must be effective but not add to the development of new microbes with AMR. The strategy of antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) has stemmed from the need to counteract these resistant microorganisms and requires that current antimicrobial treatments be used wisely to prevent amplification of AMR. It also requires new, improved or alternative methods of treatment that will not worsen the situation. Thus, any antimicrobial treatment should be effective while not causing further development of resistance. Some antiseptics fall into this category and, in particular, polyhexamethylene hydrochloride biguanide (PHMB) has certain characteristics that make it an ideal solution to this problem of AMR, specifically within wound care applications. PHMB is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial that kills bacteria, fungi, parasites and certain viruses with a high therapeutic index, and is widely used in clinics, homes and industry. It has been used for many years and has not been shown to cause development of resistance; it is safe (non-cytotoxic), not causing damage to newly growing wound tissue. Importantly there is substantial evidence for its effective use in wound care applications, providing a sound basis for evidence-based practice. This review presents the evidence for the use of PHMB treatments in wound care and its alignment with AMS for the prevention and treatment of wound infection.

Bacteriological profile of wound swab and their antibiogram pattern in a tertiary care hospital, Saudi Arabia

OBJECTIVES

To assess the microbial profile of wound infection and their antibiogram pattern.

METHODS

A retrospective study was carried out at King Abdulaziz University Hospital, Jeddah Saudi Arabia between December 2021 and July 2022 comprising data related to demographic, microbial profile and antibiotic sensitivity pattern of wound infection-suspected cases.

RESULTS

A total of 305 wound swabs were collected; of which 56.1% showed microbial growth. Among 187 microbial isolates, 62% were gram-negative bacteria, 30.5% were gram-positive bacteria and 7.5% were fungi. Staphylococcus aureus was the prevailing isolates 17.1%, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, each with 13.9% and Escherichia coli with 12.8 %. Providencia sp with 0.1% was the least isolated bacteria. Out of 173 bacterial isolates, 46.8% were sensitive to antimicrobial agents tested, while 53.2% were resistant to one and more drug tested. Of these isolates, 22% were found to be the MDR bacteria. The highest MDR percentages was noted among Acinetobacter baumannii (70%) followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae (53.9%), Escherichia coli (25%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (19.2%) and the least by (12.5%) by Staphylococcus aureus. CONCLUSION: The microbial isolation rates from wound infection was high, with Staphylococcus aureus being the most prevalent. Considerable antimicrobial resistance rate to the commonly used antibiotics was discovered. Thus, regular monitoring of microbial profile and their antimicrobial sensitivity pattern in the study region in attempt to contain antimicrobial resistance is highly recommended.

In vitro evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of antiseptics against clinical Acinetobacter baumannii strains isolated from combat wounds

Healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) are among the most prominent medical problems worldwide. In the context of increasing antibiotic resistance globally, the use of antiseptics as the main active agent and potentiator of antibiotics for the treatment of purulent-inflammatory complications of traumatic wounds, burns, and surgical wounds can be considered to tackle opportunistic infections and their prevention during war. This study presents a comparative investigation of the antimicrobial efficacy of antiseptics used for surgical antisepsis and antiseptic treatment of skin, mucous membranes, and wounds against multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii as a wound pathogen of critical priority (according to the WHO). It was found that strains of A. baumannii, which have natural and acquired resistance to antimicrobial drugs, remain susceptible to modern antiseptics. Antiseptic drugs based on decamethoxine, chlorhexidine, octenidine, polyhexanide, and povidone-iodine 10% and 2% provide effective bactericidal activity against A. baumannii within the working concentrations of these drugs. Chlorhexidine and decamethoxine can inhibit biofilm formation by A. baumannii cells. In terms of bactericidal properties and biofilm formation inhibition, chlorhexidine and decamethoxine are the most effective of all tested antiseptics.

How to cleanse a wound

Wound cleansing is a routine element of wound care. However, unnecessary cleansing, inappropriate techniques and inappropriate use of cleansing solutions can negatively affect patient outcomes. Therefore, it is essential that nurses understand when and how to cleanse a wound, and are able to select the most appropriate solution to use based on a holistic wound assessment. Nurses undertaking wound cleansing must have the knowledge and skills required to do so safely and must work within their level of competence. REFLECTIVE ACTIVITY: 'How to' articles can help to update your practice and ensure it remains evidence based. Apply this article to your practice. Reflect on and write a short account of.

Recent Advances in Hydrogel-Mediated Nitric Oxide Delivery Systems Targeted for Wound Healing Applications

Despite the noticeable evolution in wound treatment over the centuries, a functional material that promotes correct and swift wound healing is important, considering the relative weight of chronic wounds in healthcare. Difficult to heal in a fashionable time, chronic wounds are more prone to infections and complications thereof. Nitric oxide (NO) has been explored for wound healing applications due to its appealing properties, which in the wound healing context include vasodilation, angiogenesis promotion, cell proliferation, and antimicrobial activity. NO delivery is facilitated by molecules that release NO when prompted, whose stability is ensured using carriers. Hydrogels, popular materials for wound dressings, have been studied as scaffolds for NO storage and delivery, showing promising results such as enhanced wound healing, controlled and sustained NO release, and bactericidal properties. Systems reported so far regarding NO delivery by hydrogels are reviewed.

Prevalence, antimicrobial resistance profile, and characterization of multi-drug resistant bacteria from various infected wounds in North Egypt

Multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria associated with wounds are extremely escalating. This study aims to survey different wounds in Alexandria hospitals, North Egypt, to explore the prevalence and characteristics of MDR bacteria for future utilization in antibacterial wound dressing designs. Among various bacterial isolates, we determined 22 MDR bacteria could resist different classes of antibiotics. The collected samples exhibited the prevalence of mono-bacterial infections (60%), while 40% included poly-bacterial species due to previous antibiotic administration. Moreover, Gram-negative bacteria showed dominance with a ratio of 63.6%, while Gram-positive bacteria reported 36.4%. Subsequently, the five most virulent bacteria were identified following the molecular approach by 16S rRNA and physiological properties using the VITEK 2 automated system. They were deposited in GenBank as Staphylococcus haemolyticus MST1 (KY550377), Pseudomonas aeruginosa MST2 (KY550378), Klebsiella pneumoniae MST3 (KY550379), Escherichia coli MST4 (KY550380), and Escherichia coli MST5 (KY550381). In terms of isolation source, S. haemolyticus MST1 was isolated from a traumatic wound, while P. aeruginosa MST2 and E. coli MST4 were procured from hernia surgical wounds, and K. pneumoniae MST3 and E. coli MST5 were obtained from diabetic foot ulcers. Antibiotic sensitivity tests exposed that K. pneumoniae MST3, E. coli MST4, and E. coli MST5 are extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) bacteria. Moreover, S. haemolyticus MST1 belongs to the methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococcus (MRCoNS), whereas P. aeruginosa MST2 exhibited resistance to common empirical bactericidal antibiotics. Overall, the study provides new insights into the prevalent MDR bacteria in Egypt for further use as specific models in formulating antibacterial wound dressings.

Hydro-responsive wound dressings for treating hard-to-heal wounds: a narrative review of the clinical evidence

A break in skin integrity must be repaired as quickly as possible to avoid excess blood and fluid loss, and to minimise the onset of infection. Hard-to-heal wounds, in which the progression of the wound healing response is compromised, present several challenges to healing (for example, the presence of devitalised tissue acting as a physical barrier to healing and as a focus for bacterial contamination with the potential for subsequent infection). The objective of this article is to present, as a narrative review, the clinical evidence supporting the use of a unique hydro-responsive wound dressing (HydroClean, HRWD1, PAUL HARTMANN AG, Germany). The dressing provides a simple treatment option to address a number of clinical challenges clinicians must overcome in order to facilitate wound healing progression. These studies demonstrated that this product supported successful debridement/cleansing of a wide variety of wounds, including hard-to-heal wounds, enabled wound bed preparation, and lead to positive healing outcomes, including in wounds that previously had failed to heal. The simplicity of using HRWD1 as a single dressing can help clinicians overcome a variety of challenges when treating both acute and hard-to-heal wounds, which, with the benefit of proven patient outcomes, could make it an ideal choice for a first-line treatment.

Wound Antiseptics and European Guidelines for Antiseptic Application in Wound Treatment

Issues arising in wound healing are very common, and chronic wound infections affect approximately 1.5% of the population. The main substances used in wound washing, cleansing and treatment are antiseptics. Today, there are many compounds with a known antiseptic activity. Older antiseptics (e.g., boric acid, ethacridine lactate, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, iodoform, iodine and dyes) are not recommended for wound treatment due to a number of disadvantages. According to the newest guidelines of the Polish Society for Wound Treatment and the German Consensus on Wound Antisepsis, only the following antiseptics should be taken into account for wound treatment: octenidine (OCT), polihexanide (PHMB), povidone-iodine (PVP-I), sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and nanosilver. This article provides an overview of the five antiseptics mentioned above, their chemical properties, wound applications, side effects and safety.

The Impact of Intraspecies Variability on Growth Rate and Cellular Metabolic Activity of Bacteria Exposed to Rotating Magnetic Field

Majority of research on the influence of magnetic fields on microorganisms has been carried out with the use of different species or different groups of microorganisms, but not with the use of different strains belonging to one species. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of rotating magnetic fields (RMF) of 5 and 50 Hz on the growth and cellular metabolic activity of eight species of bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter cloacae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Bacillus cereus. However, contrary to the research conducted so far, each species was represented by at least four different strains. Moreover, an additional group of S. aureus belonging to a single clonal type but representing different biotypes was also included in the experiment. The results showed a varied influence of RMF on growth dynamics and cellular metabolic activity, diversified to the greatest extent in dependence on the bacterial strain exposed to the RMF and to a lesser extent in dependence on the frequency of the generated magnetic field. It was found that, with regard to the exposed strain of the same species, the effect exerted by the RMF may be positive (i.e., manifests as the increase in the growth rate or/and cellular metabolic activity) or negative (i.e., manifests as a reduction of both aforementioned features) or none. Even when one clonal type of S. aureus was used, the results of RMF exposure also varied (although the degree of differentiation was lower than for strains representing different clones). Therefore, the research has proven that, apart from the previously described factors related primarily to the physical parameters of the magnetic field, one of the key parameters affecting the final result of its influence is the bacterial intraspecies variability.

Microbial Species Isolated from Infected Wounds and Antimicrobial Resistance Analysis: Data Emerging from a Three-Years Retrospective Study

The antimicrobial resistance is a topic of global interest in the treatment of wound infections. The goal of this retrospective study was both the identification of the microorganisms responsible for wound infections and the determination of their drug susceptibility pattern. The study was performed from 2017 to 2019 and included 239 patients. Thirty-four species were isolated by culture methods and identified and analysed for their susceptibility patterns to antimicrobials through the Walk Away automated system. The presence of one species was the most frequent condition (75.3%), whereas a co-infection was detected in 24.7% of samples. The most common species were Gram-negative (57.9%), amongst which the most prevalent were Pseudomonas aeruginosa (40.2%), Escherichia coli (20.7%), Proteus mirabilis (11.2%), and Acinetobacter baumannii/haemolyticus (9.5%). Gram-positive bacteria were observed in 36.6%, Staphylococcus aureus (79.4%) being the most predominant species. At least one resistance to antibiotics was detected in 88.2% of isolates, while a multi-drug-resistance versus no less than 6 antimicrobials was detected in 29.2% of isolates. Although multi-drug resistant species and co-infections were observed, those were less frequently observed at the wound site. These conditions make the microorganisms eradication more difficult. The detection of a polymicrobial infection and multi-drug resistant microorganisms followed by a proper therapeutic treatment would lead to the resolution of the infection, promoting wound healing and the limitation of the spread of antibiotic resistance.

The Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm In Vitro Activity of Liquid and Vapour Phases of Selected Essential Oils against Staphylococcus aureus

The high resistance of staphylococcal biofilm against antibiotics and developing resistance against antiseptics induces a search for novel antimicrobial compounds. Due to acknowledged and/or alleged antimicrobial activity of EOs, their application seems to be a promising direction to follow. Nevertheless, the high complexity of EOs composition and differences in laboratory protocols of the antimicrobial activity assessment hinders the exact estimation of EOs effectiveness. To overcome these disadvantages, in the present work we analysed the effectiveness of volatile and liquid forms of seven EOs (derived from thyme, tea tree, basil, rosemary, eucalyptus, lavender, and menthol mint) against 16 staphylococcal biofilm-forming strains using cohesive set of in vitro techniques, including gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, inverted Petri dish, modified disk-diffusion assay, microdilution techniques, antibiofilm dressing activity measurement, AntiBioVol protocol, fluorescence/confocal microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. Depending on the requirements of the technique, EOs were applied in emulsified or non-emulsified form. The obtained results revealed that application of different in vitro techniques allows us to get a comprehensive set of data and to gain insight into the analysed phenomena. In the course of our investigation, liquid and volatile fractions of thyme EO displayed the highest antibiofilm activity. Liquid fractions of rosemary oil were the second most active against S. aureus. Vapour phases of tea tree and lavender oils exhibited the weakest anti-staphylococcal activity. The size of emulsified droplets was the lowest for T-EO and the highest for L-EO. Bearing in mind the limitations of the in vitro study, results from presented analysis may be of pivotal meaning for the potential application of thymol as a antimicrobial agent used to fight against staphylococcal biofilm-based infections.