Identification of new urinary metabolites of famprofazone in humans

Human and rat microsomal metabolites of N-tert-butoxycarbonylmethamphetamine and its urinary metabolites in rat

Purpose

N-tert-Butoxycarbonylmethamphetamine (BocMA), a masked derivative of methamphetamine (MA), converts into MA under acidic condition and potentially acts as a precursor to MA following ingestion. To investigate the metabolism and excretion of BocMA, metabolism tests were conducted using human liver microsomes (HLM), rat liver microsomes (RLM) and rat.

Methods

BocMA metabolites were analyzed after 1000-ng/mL BocMA incubation with microsomes for 3, 8, 13, 20, 30, and 60 min. Rats were administered intraperitoneal injections (20 mg/kg) of BocMA and their urine was collected in intervals for 72 h. Metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with five authentic standards.

Results

Several metabolites including 4-hydroxy-BocMA, N-tert-butoxycarbonylephedrine and N-tert-butoxycarbonyl-cathinone were detected for HLM and RLM. In the administration test, three glucuronides of hydroxylated metabolites were detected. The total recovery values of BocMA and the metabolites during the first 72 h accounted for only 0.3% of the administered dose. Throughout the microsomal and administration experiments, MAs were not detected.

Conclusion

Hydroxylation, carbonylation and N-demethylation were proposed as metabolic pathways. However, BocMA and phase I metabolites were hardly detected in urine. This study provides useful information to interpret the possibility of BocMA intake as the cause of MA detection in biological sample.

Teratogen update: Amphetamines

Amphetamines are synthetic noncatecholamine sympathomimetic amines that act as psychostimulants. They have been prescribed for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and additional health conditions. Amphetamines are also drugs of abuse. Some experimental animal studies suggested adverse developmental effects of amphetamines, including structural malformations. These effects were most often observed in experimental animals at higher dose levels than those used for treatment or abuse and at dose levels that produce maternal toxicity. Controlled studies of amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD and other indications did not suggest that amphetamines are likely to cause structural malformations, although there are three studies associating medication for ADHD or methamphetamine abuse with gastroschisis. We did not locate studies on the neurobehavioral effects of prenatal exposures to therapeutic amphetamine use. Amphetamine abuse was associated with offspring neurobehavioral abnormalities, but lack of adequate adjustment for confounding interferes with interpretation of the associations. Adverse effects of methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy may be due to factors associated with drug abuse rather than methamphetamine itself. The adverse effects observed in methamphetamine abuse studies may not be extrapolatable to amphetamine medication use.

The solvatochromic, spectral, and geometrical properties of nifenazone: a DFT/TD-DFT and experimental study

The solvatochromic, spectral, and geometrical properties of nifenazone (NIF), a pyrazole-nicotinamide drug, were experimentally and computationally investigated in several neat solvents and in hydro-organic binary systems such as water-acetonitrile and water-dioxane systems. The bathochromic spectral shift observed in NIF absorption spectra when reducing the polarity of the solvent was correlated with the orientation polarizability (Δf). Unlike aprotic solvents, a satisfactory correlation between λ(max) and Δf was determined (linear correlation of regression coefficient, R, equal to 0.93) for polar protic solvents. In addition, the medium-dependent spectral properties were correlated with the Kamlet-Taft solvatochromic parameters (α, β, and π*) by applying a multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA). The results obtained from this analysis were then employed to establish MLRA relationships for NIF in order to estimate the spectral shift in different solvents, which in turn exhibited excellent correlation (R > 0.99) with the experimental values of ν(max). Density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT theory calculations coupled with the integral equation formalism-polarizable continuum model (IEF-PCM) were performed to investigate the solvent-dependent spectral and geometrical properties of NIF. The calculations showed good and poor agreements with the experimental results using the CAM-B3LYP and B3LYP functionals, respectively. Experimental and theoretical results confirmed that the chemical properties of NIF are strongly dependent on the polarity of the chosen medium and its hydrogen bonding capability. This in turn supports the hypothesis of the delocalization of the electron density within the pyrazole ring of NIF.

Famprofazone as the Source of Methamphetamine and Amphetamine in Urine Specimen Collected During Sport Competition

During a sport competition event in Taiwan, one urine specimen was found positive for both methamphetamine (2688 ng/mL) and amphetamine (462 ng/mL). The specimen donor claimed that she had taken Gewolen (a nonprescription drug manufactured in Taiwan) for treating abdominal pain and the medication was presented. Laboratory investigation confirmed that Gewolen contains famprofazone, which is known to metabolize to methamphetamine and amphetamine and is included in the prohibited list of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Study on the excretion profiles of three volunteers ingesting 50 mg famprofazone produced the following patterns similar to that observed in the case specimen: (a) the ratio of methamphetamine to amphetamine was approximately 6 to 1; (b) d- and l-enantiomers of both methamphetamine and amphetamine were present, while the amount of l-methamphetamine was 3-4-fold greater than its counterpart. The data suggested that famprofazone (as the ingredient of Gewolen) was likely the source of the prohibited drugs found in the case specimen.

Precursor medications as a source of methamphetamine and/or amphetamine positive drug testing results

Medical Review Officer interpretation of laboratory results is an important component of drug testing programs. The clinical evaluation of laboratory results to assess the possibility of appropriate medical use of a drug is a task with many different facets, depending on the drug class considered. This intercession prevents the reporting of positive results unless it is apparent that drugs were used illicitly. In addition to the commonly encountered prescribed drugs that yield positive drug testing results, other sources of positive results must be considered. This review describes a series of compounds referred to as "precursor" drugs that are metabolized by the body to amphetamine and/or methamphetamine. These compounds lead to positive results for amphetamines even though neither amphetamine nor methamphetamine were used, a possibility that must be considered in the review of laboratory results. Description of the drugs, their clinical indications, and results seen following administration are provided. This information allows for the informed evaluation of results with regard to the potential involvement of these drugs.

Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the amphetamine-like anorectic fenproporex in human urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fluorescence polarization immunoassay

Studies on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of fenproporex (R,S-3-[(1-phenyl-2-propyl)-amino]-propionitrile, FP) using GC-MS and fluorescence polarization immunoassay are described. The metabolites were identified in urine samples of volunteers by GC-MS after cleavage of conjugates, extraction and acetylation. Besides unchanged FP, fourteen metabolites, including amphetamine, could be identified. Two partially overlapping metabolic pathways could be postulated: ring degradation by one- and two-fold aromatic hydroxylation followed by methylation and side chain degradation by N-dealkylation to amphetamine (AM). A minor pathway leads via beta-hydroxylation of AM to norephedrine. For GC-MS detection, the systematic toxicological analysis procedure including acid hydrolysis, extraction at pH 8-9 and acetylation was suitable (detection limits 50 ng/ml for FP and 100 ng/ml for AM). Excretion studies showed, that only AM but neither FP nor its specific metabolites were detectable 30-60 h after ingestion of 20 mg of FP. Therefore, misinterpretation can occur. The Abbott TDx FPIA amphetamine/methamphetamine II gave positive results up to 58 h. All the positive immunoassay results could be confirmed by the described GC-MS procedure.