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Matsuo T, Ogawa T, Iwai M, Kubo K, Kondo F, Seno H. Development of an LC-MS/MS method for the determination of five psychoactive drugs in postmortem urine by optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuronide conjugates. Forensic Toxicol 2024; 42:181-190. [PMID: 38557936 PMCID: PMC11269451 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-024-00685-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Toxicological analyses of biological samples play important roles in forensic and clinical investigations. Ingested drugs are excreted in urine as conjugates with endogenous substances such as glucuronic acid; hydrolyzing these conjugates improves the determination of target drugs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In this study, we sought to improve the enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuronide conjugates of five psychoactive drugs (11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, oxazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, and amitriptyline). METHODS The efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuronide conjugates in urine was optimized by varying temperature, enzyme volume, and reaction time. The hydrolysis was performed directly on extraction columns. This analysis method using LC-MS/MS was applied to forensic autopsy samples after thorough validation. RESULTS We found that the recombinant β-glucuronidase B-One® quantitatively hydrolyzed these conjugates within 3 min at room temperature directly on extraction columns. This on-column method saved time and eliminated the loss of valuable samples during transfer to the extraction column. LC-MS/MS-based calibration curves processed with this method showed good linearity, with r2 values exceeding 0.998. The intra- and inter-day accuracies and precisions of the method were 93.0-109.7% and 0.8-8.8%, respectively. The recovery efficiencies were in the range of 56.1-104.5%. Matrix effects were between 78.9 and 126.9%. CONCLUSIONS We have established an LC-MS/MS method for five psychoactive drugs in urine after enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuronide conjugates directly on extraction columns. The method was successfully applied to forensic autopsy samples. The established method will have broad applications, including forensic and clinical toxicological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohito Matsuo
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan.
- Poison Analysis Center, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan.
| | - Tadashi Ogawa
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
- Poison Analysis Center, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
| | - Masae Iwai
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
- Poison Analysis Center, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Kubo
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
- Department of Oral Pathology/Forensic Odontology, Aichi Gakuin University School of Dentistry, 1-100 Kusumoto-Cho, Chikusa-Ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Fumio Kondo
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chubu University College of Life and Health Sciences, 1200 Matsumoto‑cho, Kasugai, Aichi, 487‑8501, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Seno
- Department of Legal Medicine, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
- Poison Analysis Center, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1195, Japan
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Evich MG, Mosley JD, Ntai I, Cavallin JE, Villeneuve DL, Ankley GT, Collette TW, Ekman DR. Untargeted MS n-Based Monitoring of Glucuronides in Fish: Screening Complex Mixtures for Contaminants with Biological Relevance. ACS ES&T WATER 2022; 2:2481-2490. [PMID: 37288388 PMCID: PMC10243500 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The complexity of contaminant mixtures in surface waters has presented long-standing challenges to the assessment of risks to human health and the environment. As a result, novel strategies for both identifying contaminants that have not been routinely monitored through targeted methods and prioritizing detected compounds with respect to their biological relevance are needed. Tracking biotransformation products in biofluids and tissues in an untargeted fashion facilitates the identification of chemicals taken up by the resident species (e.g., fish), so by default ensuring that detected compounds are biologically relevant in terms of exposure. In this study, we investigated xenobiotic glucuronidation, which is arguably the most important phase II metabolism pathway for many pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and other environmental contaminants. The application of an untargeted high-resolution mass spectrometry-based approach tentatively revealed the presence of over 70 biologically relevant xenobiotics in bile collected from male and female fathead minnows exposed to wastewater treatment plant effluents. The majority of these were not targets of conventional contaminant monitoring. These results highlight the utility of biologically based untargeted screening methods when evaluating chemical contaminants in complex environmental mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina G. Evich
- 1. Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Jonathan D. Mosley
- 1. Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Ioanna Ntai
- 2. Thermo Fisher Scientific, San Jose, California 95134, United States; Present Address: BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc, San Rafael, CA 94901, USA
| | - Jenna E. Cavallin
- 3. Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota 55804, United States
| | - Daniel L. Villeneuve
- 3. Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota 55804, United States
| | - Gerald T. Ankley
- 3. Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota 55804, United States
| | - Timothy W. Collette
- 1. Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Drew R. Ekman
- 1. Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
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3
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Lee LA, McGee AC, Sitasuwan P, Tomashek JJ, Riley C, Muñoz-Muñoz AC, Andrade L. Factors Compromising Glucuronidase Performance in Urine Drug Testing Potentially Resulting in False Negatives. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:689-696. [PMID: 34401904 PMCID: PMC9282255 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Next generation β-glucuronidases can effectively cleave glucuronides in urine at room temperature. However, during the discovery studies, additional challenges were identified for urine drug testing across biologically relevant pH extremes and patient urine specimens. Different enzymes were evaluated across clinical urine specimens and commercially available urine control matrices. Each enzyme shows distinct substrate preferences, pH optima, and variability across clinical specimens. These results demonstrate how reliance on a single glucuronidated substrate as the internal hydrolysis control cannot ensure performance across a broader panel of analytes. Moreover, sample specific urine properties compromise β-glucuronidases to varying levels, more pronounced for some enzymes, and thereby lower the recovery of some drug analytes in an enzyme-specific manner. A minimum of 3-fold dilution of urine with buffer yields measurable improvements in achieving target pH and reducing the impact of endogenous compounds on enzyme performance. After subjecting the enzymes to pH extremes and compromising chemicals, one particular β-glucuronidase was identified that addressed many of these challenges and greatly lower the risk of failed hydrolyses. In summary, we present strategies to evaluate glucuronidases that aid in higher accuracy urine drug tests with lower potential for false negatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Andrew Lee
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, Inc, Irmo, SC 29063, USA
| | - Amanda C McGee
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, Inc, Irmo, SC 29063, USA
| | | | - John J Tomashek
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, Inc, Irmo, SC 29063, USA
| | - Chris Riley
- Dominion Diagnostics, LLC, North Kingstown, RI 02852, USA
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Schlachter CR, McGee AC, Sitasuwan PN, Horvath GC, Karri NG, Lee LA, Tomashek JJ. Variants of glycosyl hydrolase family 2 β-glucuronidases have increased activity on recalcitrant substrates. Enzyme Microb Technol 2021; 145:109742. [PMID: 33750535 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2020.109742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glucuronidated drug metabolites can be quantified from urine samples by first hydrolyzing conjugates with β-glucuronidase (β-GUS) and then separating free drug molecules by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS). To improve the activity and specificity of various β-GUS, we designed enzyme chimeras and generated site-saturation variants based on structural analyses, then screened them for improved activity on drug metabolites important to clinical and forensic drug-testing laboratories. Often, an increase of activity on one substrate of interest was countered by loss of activity against another, and there was no strong correlation of activity on standard β-glucuronidase substrates to activity on recalcitrant drug glucuronides. However, we discovered a chimera of two enzymes from different species of Aspergillus that displays a 27 % increase in activity on morphine-3-glucuronide than the parent proteins. Furthermore, mutations in the M-loop, which is a loop near the active site, resulted in numerous variants with dramatically increased rates of hydrolysis on drug glucuronides. Specifically, the M-loop variant Q451D/A452E of a β-GUS from Brachyspira pilosicoli has a 50-fold and 25-fold increase in activity on the recalcitrant substrates codeine-6-glucuronide and dihydrocodeine-6-glucuronide, respectively, compared to the parent enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb R Schlachter
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - Amanda C McGee
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - Pongkwan N Sitasuwan
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - Gary C Horvath
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - Nanda G Karri
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - L Andrew Lee
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States
| | - John J Tomashek
- Integrated Micro-Chromatography Systems, 110 Centrum Drive, Irmo, SC, 29063, United States.
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Sofalvi S, Lavins ES, Kaspar CK, Michel HM, Mitchell-Mata CL, Huestis MA, Apollonio LG. Development and Validation of an LC-MS-MS Method for the Detection of 40 Benzodiazepines and Three Z-Drugs in Blood and Urine by Solid-Phase Extraction. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 44:708-717. [PMID: 32808043 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
An analytical method for the detection of 40 benzodiazepines, (±)-zopiclone, zaleplon and zolpidem in blood and urine by solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated. Twenty-nine of 43 analytes were quantified in 0.5 mL whole blood for investigating postmortem, drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) and driving under the influence of drugs cases (DUID). The four different dynamic ranges of the seven-point, linear, 1/x weighted calibration curves with lower limits of quantification of 2, 5, 10 and 20 μg/L across the analytes encompassed the majority of our casework encountered in postmortem, DFSA and DUID samples. Reference materials were available for all analytes except α-hydroxyflualprazolam, a hydroxylated metabolite of flualprazolam. The fragmentation of α-hydroxyflualprazolam was predicted from the fragmentation pattern of α-hydroxyalprazolam, and the appropriate transitions were added to the method to enable monitoring for this analyte. Urine samples were hydrolyzed at 55°C for 30 min with a genetically modified β-glucuronidase enzyme, which resulted in >95% efficiency measured by oxazepam glucuronide. Extensive sample preparation included combining osmotic lysing and protein precipitation with methanol/acetonitrile mixture followed by freezing and centrifugation resulted in exceptionally high signal-to-noise ratios. Bias and between-and within-day imprecision for quality controls (QCs) were all within ±15%, except for clonazolam and etizolam that were within ±20%. All 29 of the 43 analytes tested for QC performance met quantitative reporting criteria within the dynamic ranges of the calibration curves, and 14 analytes, present only in the calibrator solution, were qualitatively reported. Twenty-five analytes met all quantitative reporting criteria including dilution integrity. The ability to analyze quantitative blood and qualitative urine samples in the same batch is one of the most useful elements of this procedure. This sensitive, specific and robust analytical method was routinely employed in the analysis of >300 samples in our laboratory over the last 6 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szabolcs Sofalvi
- Toxicology Department, Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's Office (CCMEO), 11001 Cedar Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Eric S Lavins
- Toxicology Department, Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's Office (CCMEO), 11001 Cedar Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Claire K Kaspar
- Toxicology Department, Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's Office (CCMEO), 11001 Cedar Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Haley M Michel
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Akron, 190 E. Buchtel Avenue, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Christie L Mitchell-Mata
- Toxicology Department, Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's Office (CCMEO), 11001 Cedar Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, 901 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Luigino G Apollonio
- Toxicology Department, Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner's Office (CCMEO), 11001 Cedar Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Borden SA, Palaty J, Termopoli V, Famiglini G, Cappiello A, Gill CG, Palma P. MASS SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS OF DRUGS OF ABUSE: CHALLENGES AND EMERGING STRATEGIES. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2020; 39:703-744. [PMID: 32048319 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry has been the "gold standard" for drugs of abuse (DoA) analysis for many decades because of the selectivity and sensitivity it affords. Recent progress in all aspects of mass spectrometry has seen significant developments in the field of DoA analysis. Mass spectrometry is particularly well suited to address the rapidly proliferating number of very high potency, novel psychoactive substances that are causing an alarming number of fatalities worldwide. This review surveys advancements in the areas of sample preparation, gas and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, as well as the rapidly emerging field of ambient ionization mass spectrometry. We have predominantly targeted literature progress over the past ten years and present our outlook for the future. © 2020 Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Borden
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Jan Palaty
- LifeLabs Medical Laboratories, Burnaby, BC, V3W 1H8, Canada
| | - Veronica Termopoli
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Achille Cappiello
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Chris G Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Pierangela Palma
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
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Kapur BM, Aleksa K. What the lab can and cannot do: clinical interpretation of drug testing results. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2020; 57:548-585. [PMID: 32609540 DOI: 10.1080/10408363.2020.1774493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Urine drug testing is one of the objective tools available to assess adherence. To monitor adherence, quantitative urinary results can assist in differentiating "new" drug use from "previous" (historical) drug use. "Spikes" in urinary concentration can assist in identifying patterns of drug use. Coupled chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods are capable of identifying very small amounts of analyte and can make clinical interpretation rather challenging, specifically for drugs that have a longer half-life. Polypharmacy is common in treatment and rehabilitation programs because of co-morbidities. Medications prescribed for comorbidities can cause drug-drug interaction and phenoconversion of genotypic extensive metabolizers into phenotypic poor metabolizers of the treatment drug. This can have significant impact on both pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic properties of the treatment drug. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) coupled with PKs can assist in interpreting the effects of phenoconversion. TDM-PKs reflects the cumulative effects of pathophysiological changes in the patient as well as drug-drug interactions and should be considered for treatment medications/drugs used to manage pain and treat substance abuse. Since only a few enzyme immunoassays for TDM are available, this is a unique opportunity for clinical laboratory scientists to develop TDM-PK protocols that can have a significant impact on patient care and personalized medicine. Interpretation of drug screening results should be done with caution while considering pharmacological properties and the presence or absence of the parent drug and its metabolites. The objective of this manuscript is to review and address the variables that influence interpretation of different drugs analyzed from a rehabilitation and treatment programs perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhushan M Kapur
- Clini Tox Inc., Oakville, Canada.,Seroclinix Corporation, Mississauga, Canada
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