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Blasco-Lavilla N, López-López A, De la Rúa P, Barribeau SM. Infection by Crithidia bombi increases relative abundance of Lactobacillus spp. in the gut of Bombus terrestris. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17478. [PMID: 39075965 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Gut microbial communities confer protection against natural pathogens in important pollinators from the genera Bombus and Apis. In commercial species B. terrestris and B. impatiens, the microbiota increases their resistance to the common and virulent trypanosomatid parasite Crithidia bombi. However, the mechanisms by which gut microorganisms protect the host are still unknown. Here, we test two hypotheses: microbiota protect the host (1) through stimulation of its immune response or protection of the gut epithelium and (2) by competing for resources with the parasite inside the gut. To test them, we reduced the microbiota of workers and then rescued the microbial community by feeding them with microbiota supplements. We then exposed them to an infectious dose of C. bombi and characterised gene expression and gut microbiota composition. We examined the expression of three antimicrobial peptide genes and Mucin-5AC, a gene with a putative role in gut epithelium protection, using qPCR. Although a protective effect against C. bombi was observed in bumblebees with supplemented microbiota, we did not observe an effect of the microbiota on gene expression that could explain alone the protective effect observed. On the other hand, we found an increased relative abundance of Lactobacillus bacteria within the gut of infected workers and a negative correlation of this genus with Gilliamella and Snodgrassella genera. Therefore, our results point to a displacement of bumblebee endosymbionts by C. bombi that might be caused by competition for space and nutrients between the parasite and the microbiota within the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Blasco-Lavilla
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Alejandro López-López
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Department of Invertebrate Evolution, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Pilar De la Rúa
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Seth Michael Barribeau
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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2
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Botero J, Peeters C, De Canck E, Laureys D, Wieme AD, Cleenwerck I, Depoorter E, Praet J, Michez D, Smagghe G, Vandamme P. A comparative genomic analysis of Fructobacillus evanidus sp. nov. from bumble bees. Syst Appl Microbiol 2024; 47:126505. [PMID: 38564984 DOI: 10.1016/j.syapm.2024.126505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
The increase in studies on bee microbiomes is prompted by concerns over global pollinator declines. Bumble bees host core and non-core microbiota which may contribute to increased lifetime fitness. The presence of Fructobacillus in the gut microbiomes of bumble bee workers, or the replacement of core symbionts with Fructobacillus bacteria, has been considered a marker of dysbiosis. A phylogenomic analysis and functional genomic characterization of the genomes of 21 Fructobacillus isolates from bumble bees demonstrated that they represented four species, i.e. Fructobacillus cardui, Fructobacillus fructosus, Fructobacillus tropaeoli, and the novel species Fructobacillus evanidus sp. nov. Our results confirmed and substantiated the presence of two phylogenetically and functionally distinct Fructobacillus species clades that differ in genome size, percentage G + C content, the number of coding DNA sequences and metabolic characteristics. Clade 1 and clade 2 species differed in amino acid and, to a lesser extent, in carbohydrate metabolism, with F. evanidus and F. tropaeoli genomes featuring a higher number of complete metabolic pathways. While Fructobacillus genomes encoded genes that allow adhesion, biofilm formation, antibacterial activity and detoxification, other bacteria isolated from the bumble bee gut appeared better equipped to co-exist with the bumble bee host. The isolation and identification of multiple Fructobacillus species from several bumble bee gut samples in the present study also argued against a specific partnership between Fructobacillus species and their bumble bee hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Botero
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Peeters
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Evelien De Canck
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - David Laureys
- Innovation Centre for Brewing & Fermentation, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anneleen D Wieme
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ilse Cleenwerck
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Eliza Depoorter
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jessy Praet
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Denis Michez
- Laboratory of Zoology, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons, Place du parc 20, 7000 Mons, Belgium
| | - Guy Smagghe
- Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Vandamme
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Maigoro AY, Lee JH, Kim H, Frunze O, Kwon HW. Gut Microbiota of Apis mellifera at Selected Ontogenetic Stages and Their Immunogenic Potential during Summer. Pathogens 2024; 13:122. [PMID: 38392860 PMCID: PMC10893431 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13020122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are pollinating agents of economic importance. The role of the gut microbiome in honeybee health has become increasingly evident due to its relationship with immune function, growth, and development. Although their dynamics at various developmental stages have been documented, their dynamics during the era of colony collapse disorder and immunogenic potential, which are connected to the antagonistic immune response against pathogens, need to be elucidated. Using 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing, the results indicated changes in the gut microbiota with the developmental stage. The bacterial diversity of fifth stage larva was significantly different among the other age groups, in which Fructobacillus, Escherichia-Shigella, Bombella, and Tyzzerella were unique bacteria. In addition, the diversity of the worker bee microbiome was distinct from that of the younger microbiome. Lactobacillus and Gilliamella remained conserved throughout the developmental stages, while Bifidobacterium colonized only worker bees. Using an in silico approach, the production potential of lipopolysaccharide-endotoxin was predicted. Forager bees tend to have a higher abundance rate of Gram-negative bacteria. Our results revealed the evolutionary importance of some microbiome from the larval stage to the adult stage, providing insight into the potential dynamics of disease response and susceptibility. This finding provides a theoretical foundation for furthering the understanding of the function of the gut microbiota at various developmental stages related to probiotic development and immunogenic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulkadir Yusif Maigoro
- Convergence Research Center for Insect Vectors, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea (H.K.)
| | - Jeong-Hyeon Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hyunjee Kim
- Convergence Research Center for Insect Vectors, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea (H.K.)
| | - Olga Frunze
- Convergence Research Center for Insect Vectors, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea (H.K.)
| | - Hyung-Wook Kwon
- Convergence Research Center for Insect Vectors, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea (H.K.)
- Department of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea;
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Vocadlova K, Lüddecke T, Patras MA, Marner M, Hartwig C, Benes K, Matha V, Mraz P, Schäberle TF, Vilcinskas A. Extracts of Talaromyces purpureogenus Strains from Apis mellifera Bee Bread Inhibit the Growth of Paenibacillus spp. In Vitro. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2067. [PMID: 37630627 PMCID: PMC10459140 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Honey bees coexist with fungi that colonize hive surfaces and pollen. Some of these fungi are opportunistic pathogens, but many are beneficial species that produce antimicrobial compounds for pollen conservation and the regulation of pathogen populations. In this study, we tested the in vitro antimicrobial activity of Talaromyces purpureogenus strains isolated from bee bread against Paenibacillus alvei (associated with European foulbrood disease) and three Aspergillus species that cause stonebrood disease. We found that methanol extracts of T. purpureogenus strains B18 and B195 inhibited the growth of P. alvei at a concentration of 0.39 mg/mL. Bioactivity-guided dereplication revealed that the activity of the crude extracts correlated with the presence of diketopiperazines, a siderophore, and three unknown compounds. We propose that non-pathogenic fungi such as Talaromyces spp. and their metabolites in bee bread could be an important requirement to prevent disease. Agricultural practices involving the use of fungicides can disrupt the fungal community and thus negatively affect the health of bee colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Vocadlova
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
| | - Tim Lüddecke
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics (LOEWE-TBG), 60325 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Maria A. Patras
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
| | - Michael Marner
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
| | - Christoph Hartwig
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
| | - Karel Benes
- OncoRa s.r.o., Nemanicka 2722, 37001 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimir Matha
- Retorta s.r.o., Tresnova 316, 37382 Borsov nad Vltavou, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Mraz
- Faculty of Agriculture and Technology, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Studentska 1668, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Till F. Schäberle
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26–32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Andreas Vilcinskas
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (K.V.)
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26–32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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5
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Ye M, Li X, Yang F, Zhou B. Beneficial bacteria as biocontrol agents for American foulbrood disease in honey bees (Apis mellifera). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2023; 23:6. [PMID: 36947033 PMCID: PMC10032306 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iead013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
American foulbrood (AFB) is a cosmopolitan bacterial disease that affects honey bee (Apis mellifera) larvae and causes great economic losses in apiculture. Currently, no satisfactory methods are available for AFB treatment mainly due to the difficulties to eradicate the tenacious spores produced by the etiological agent of AFB, Paenibacillus larvae (Bacillales, Paenibacillaceae). This present review focused on the beneficial bacteria that displayed antagonistic activities against P. larvae and demonstrated potential in AFB control. Emphases were placed on commensal bacteria (genus Bacillus and lactic acid bacteria in particular) in the alimentary tract of honey bees. The probiotic roles lactic acid bacteria play in combating the pathogenic P. larvae and the limitations referring to the application of these beneficial bacteria were addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manhong Ye
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agricultural & Agri-Product Safety, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Li
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fengping Yang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province, China
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6
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Mohamed F, Ruiz Rodriguez LG, Zorzoli A, Dorfmueller HC, Raya RR, Mozzi F. Genomic diversity in Fructobacillus spp. isolated from fructose-rich niches. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281839. [PMID: 36795789 PMCID: PMC9934391 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The Fructobacillus genus is a group of obligately fructophilic lactic acid bacteria (FLAB) that requires the use of fructose or another electron acceptor for their growth. In this work, we performed a comparative genomic analysis within the genus Fructobacillus by using 24 available genomes to evaluate genomic and metabolic differences among these organisms. In the genome of these strains, which varies between 1.15- and 1.75-Mbp, nineteen intact prophage regions, and seven complete CRISPR-Cas type II systems were found. Phylogenetic analyses located the studied genomes in two different clades. A pangenome analysis and a functional classification of their genes revealed that genomes of the first clade presented fewer genes involved in the synthesis of amino acids and other nitrogen compounds. Moreover, the presence of genes strictly related to the use of fructose and electron acceptors was variable within the genus, although these variations were not always related to the phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florencia Mohamed
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA)-CONICET, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | | | - Azul Zorzoli
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Helge C. Dorfmueller
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Raúl R. Raya
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA)-CONICET, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Fernanda Mozzi
- Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA)-CONICET, San Miguel de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina
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7
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Biocontrol potential of Apilactobacillus kunkeei EIR/BG-1 against infectious diseases in honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). Vet Res Commun 2022; 47:753-765. [DOI: 10.1007/s11259-022-10036-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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8
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Dequenne I, Philippart de Foy JM, Cani PD. Developing Strategies to Help Bee Colony Resilience in Changing Environments. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233396. [PMID: 36496917 PMCID: PMC9737243 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change, loss of plant biodiversity, burdens caused by new pathogens, predators, and toxins due to human disturbance and activity are significant causes of the loss of bee colonies and wild bees. The aim of this review is to highlight some possible strategies that could help develop bee resilience in facing their changing environments. Scientists underline the importance of the links between nutrition, microbiota, and immune and neuroendocrine stress resistance of bees. Nutrition with special care for plant-derived molecules may play a major role in bee colony health. Studies have highlighted the importance of pollen, essential oils, plant resins, and leaves or fungi as sources of fundamental nutrients for the development and longevity of a honeybee colony. The microbiota is also considered as a key factor in bee physiology and a cornerstone between nutrition, metabolism, growth, health, and pathogen resistance. Another stressor is the varroa mite parasite. This parasite is a major concern for beekeepers and needs specific strategies to reduce its severe impact on honeybees. Here we discuss how helping bees to thrive, especially through changing environments, is of great concern for beekeepers and scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Dequenne
- J-M Philippart de Foy & I Dequenne Consultation, Avenue Orban, 127, 1150 Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Patrice D. Cani
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, UCLouvain, Université Catholique de Louvain, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
- WELBIO Department, WEL Research Institute, Walloon Excellence in Life Sciences and BIOtechnology (WELBIO), Avenue Pasteur, 6, 1300 Wavre, Belgium
- Correspondence:
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Community Dynamics in Structure and Function of Honey Bee Gut Bacteria in Response to Winter Dietary Shift. mBio 2022; 13:e0113122. [PMID: 36036626 PMCID: PMC9600256 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01131-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Temperate honey bees (Apis mellifera) are challenged by low temperatures and abrupt dietary shifts associated with behavioral changes during winter. Case studies have revealed drastic turnover in the gut microbiota of winter bees, highlighted by the seasonal dominance of a non-core bacterium Bartonella. However, neither biological consequence nor underlying mechanism of this microbial turnover is clear. In particular, we ask whether such changes in gut profile are related to winter dietary shift and possibly beneficial to host and associated gut microbiome? Here, we integrated evidences from genomics, metagenomics, and metabolomics in three honey bee subspecies maintained at the same locality of northern China to profile both diversity and functional variations in gut bacteria across seasons. Our results showed that winter dominance of Bartonella was shared in all tested honey bee lineages. This seasonal change was likely a consequence of winter dietary shifts characterized by greatly reduced pollen consumption and accumulation of metabolic waste due to restricted excretion. Bartonella showed expanded genomic capacity in utilizing more diverse energy substrates, such as converting metabolic wastes lactate and ethanol into pyruvate, an energy source for self-utilization and possibly also for host and other symbionts. Furthermore, Bartonella was the only bacterium capable of both producing and secreting tryptophan and phenylalanine, whose metabolic products were detected in bee guts, even though all gut bacteria lacked relevant digestion enzymes. These results thus suggested a possible mechanism where the gut bacteria might benefit the host by supplementing them with essential amino acids lacking in a protein shortage diet.
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Functional Properties and Antimicrobial Activity from Lactic Acid Bacteria as Resources to Improve the Health and Welfare of Honey Bees. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13030308. [PMID: 35323606 PMCID: PMC8953987 DOI: 10.3390/insects13030308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Honey bees play a pivotal role in the sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity. Many factors including parasites, pathogens, pesticide residues, forage losses, and poor nutrition have been proposed to explain honey bee colony losses. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of honey bees and their role has been consistently reported in the literature. In recent years, there have been numerous scientific evidence that the intestinal microbiota plays an essential role in honey bee health. Management strategies, based on supplementation of the gut microbiota with probiotics, may be important to increase stress tolerance and disease resistance. In this review, recent scientific advances on the use of LABs as microbial supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. Abstract Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are agriculturally important pollinators. Over the past decades, significant losses of wild and domestic bees have been reported in many parts of the world. Several biotic and abiotic factors, such as change in land use over time, intensive land management, use of pesticides, climate change, beekeeper’s management practices, lack of forage (nectar and pollen), and infection by parasites and pathogens, negatively affect the honey bee’s well-being and survival. The gut microbiota is important for honey bee growth and development, immune function, protection against pathogen invasion; moreover, a well-balanced microbiota is fundamental to support honey bee health and vigor. In fact, the structure of the bee’s intestinal bacterial community can become an indicator of the honey bee’s health status. Lactic acid bacteria are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of many insects, and their presence in the honey bee intestinal tract has been consistently reported in the literature. In the first section of this review, recent scientific advances in the use of LABs as probiotic supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. The second section discusses some of the mechanisms by which LABs carry out their antimicrobial activity against pathogens. Afterward, individual paragraphs are dedicated to Chalkbrood, American foulbrood, European foulbrood, Nosemosis, and Varroosis as well as to the potentiality of LABs for their biological control.
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Honey Bee Larval and Adult Microbiome Life Stages Are Effectively Decoupled with Vertical Transmission Overcoming Early Life Perturbations. mBio 2021; 12:e0296621. [PMID: 34933445 PMCID: PMC8689520 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02966-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbiomes provide a range of benefits to their hosts which can lead to the coevolution of a joint ecological niche. However, holometabolous insects, some of the most successful organisms on Earth, occupy different niches throughout development, with larvae and adults being physiologically and morphologically highly distinct. Furthermore, transition between the stages usually involves the loss of the gut microbiome since the gut is remodeled during pupation. Most eusocial organisms appear to have evolved a workaround to this problem by sharing their communal microbiome across generations. However, whether this vertical microbiome transmission can overcome perturbations of the larval microbiome remains untested. Honey bees have a relatively simple, conserved, coevolved adult microbiome which is socially transmitted and affects many aspects of their biology. In contrast, larval microbiomes are more variable, with less clear roles. Here, we manipulated the gut microbiome of in vitro-reared larvae, and after pupation of the larvae, we inoculated the emerged bees with adult microbiome to test whether adult and larval microbiome stages may be coupled (e.g., through immune priming). Larval treatments differed in bacterial composition and abundance, depending on diet, which also drove larval gene expression. Nonetheless, adults converged on the typical core taxa and showed limited gene expression variation. This work demonstrates that honey bee adult and larval stages are effectively microbiologically decoupled, and the core adult microbiome is remarkably stable to early developmental perturbations. Combined with the transmission of the microbiome in early adulthood, this allows the formation of long-term host-microbiome associations. IMPORTANCE This work investigated host-microbiome interactions during a crucial developmental stage-the transition from larvae to adults, which is a challenge to both, the insect host and its microbiome. Using the honey bee as a tractable model system, we showed that microbiome transfer after emergence overrides any variation in the larvae, indicating that larval and adult microbiome stages are effectively decoupled. Together with the reliable vertical transfer in the eusocial system, this decoupling ensures that the adults are colonized with a consistent and derived microbiome after eclosion. Taken all together, our data provide additional support that the evolution of sociality, at least in the honey bee system tested here, is linked with host-microbiome relationships.
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12
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Sculfort O, Gérard M, Gekière A, Nonclercq D, Gerbaux P, Duez P, Vanderplanck M. Specialized Metabolites in Floral Resources: Effects and Detection in Buff-Tailed Bumblebees. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.669352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The selection of appropriate food resources by bees is a critical aspect for the maintenance of their populations, especially in the current context of global change and pollinator decline. Wild bees have a sophisticated ability to forage selectively on specific resources, and can assess the quality of pollen using contact chemosensory perception (taste). While numerous studies have investigated the detection of pollen macronutrients in bees and their impact on bee health and reproductive success, only a few studies have described the gustatory responses of bees toward specialized metabolites. In addition, these studies mostly focused on the response to nectar and neglected pollen, which is the main food resource for both bee imagines and larvae. Whether bees have the ability to detect specialized toxic metabolites in pollen and then rapidly adapt their foraging behavior to avoid them is very little studied. In this study, we tested whether pollen specialized metabolites affect bumblebees at both the micro-colony and individual levels (i.e., bioassays using supplemented pollen), and whether foragers detect these specialized metabolites and potentially display an avoidance behavior (i.e., preference tests using supplemented syrup). Bumblebees were fed with either amygdalin-, scopolamine- or sinigrin-supplemented pollen diets in ratios that mimic 50%, 100%, and 200% of naturally occurring concentrations. We found no effect of these specialized metabolites on resource collection, reproductive success and stress response at the micro-colony level. At the individual level, bumblebees fed on 50%-amygdalin or 50%-scopolamine diets displayed the highest scores for damage to their digestive systems. Interestingly, during the preference tests, the solution with 50%-scopolamine displayed a phagostimulatory activity, whereas solution with 50%-amygdalin had a deterrent effect and could trigger an active avoidance behavior in bumblebees, with a faster proboscis retraction. Our results suggest that regulation of toxin intake is not as well-established and effective as the regulation of nutrient intake in bees. Bees are therefore not equally adapted to all specialized pollen metabolites that they can come into contact with.
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Effect of Application of Probiotic Pollen Suspension on Immune Response and Gut Microbiota of Honey Bees (Apis mellifera). Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2021; 12:929-936. [PMID: 31912341 DOI: 10.1007/s12602-019-09626-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Although the use of probiotic bacteria in invertebrates is still rare, scientists have begun to look into their usage in honey bees. The probiotic preparation, based on the autochthonous strain Lactobacillus brevis B50 Biocenol™ (CCM 8618), which was isolated from the digestive tracts of healthy bees, was applied to the bee colonies in the form of a pollen suspension. Its influence on the immune response was determined by monitoring the expression of genes encoding immunologically important molecules in the honey bee intestines. Changes in the intestinal microbiota composition were also studied. The results showed that the probiotic Lact. brevis B50, on a pollen carrier, significantly increased the expression of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (abaecin, defensin-1) as well as pattern recognition receptors (toll-like receptor, peptidoglycan recognition proteins). Gene expression for the other tested molecules included in Toll and Imd signaling pathways (dorsal, cactus, kenny, relish) significantly changed during the experiment. The positive effect on intestinal microbiota was manifested mainly by a significant increase in the ratio of lactic acid bacteria to enterobacteria. These findings confirm the potential of the tested probiotic preparation to enhance immunity in bee colonies and thus increase their resistance to infectious diseases and stress conditions.
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Zeid AAA, Khattaby AM, El-Khair IAA, Gouda HIA. Detection Bioactive Metabolites of Fructobacillus fructosus Strain HI-1 Isolated from Honey Bee's Digestive Tract Against Paenibacillus larvae. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins 2021; 14:476-485. [PMID: 34216360 DOI: 10.1007/s12602-021-09812-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
American foulbrood is a devastating disease of honey bee, causing economic loss in the beekeeping industry. The disease mainly causes reduction in honey bee populations which negatively affect the honey bee's major role as natural pollinators of significant crops and wildflowers. Thus, it is crucial to develop safe efficient strategies to control the disease and to improve bee colony health. Using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as an alternative to chemical treatments is a promising novel technique for tackling honey bee diseases and improving their immunity. The endogenous LAB isolates were recovered from honey bee gut samples collected from different apiaries in two Egyptian governorates and screened for antagonistic activities against Paenibacillus larvae (pathogen of AFB disease). The results showed that 53.3% of tested LAB isolates (n = 120) exhibited antagonistic activities against P. larvae. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of the most potent LAB isolate (with an inhibition zone of 44 mm) were 100 and 125 µL/mL, respectively. 16S rRNA sequencing identified the most potent isolate as Fructobacillus fructosus HI-1. The bioactive metabolites of F. fructosus were extracted with ethyl acetate and fractionated on thin-layer chromatography (TLC); also, bioactive fractions were detected. Heptyl 2-methylbutyrate, di-isobutyl phthalate, D-turanose, heptakis (trimethylsilyl), di-isooctyl phthalate, and hyodeoxycholic acid compounds were identified in the bioactive fractions. The result explores the promising administration of probiotic metabolites to control honey bee AFB disease, as a natural tool to substitute antibiotics and chemicals in disease-controlling strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azza A Abou Zeid
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Khattaby
- Honey Bee Research Department, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt
| | | | - Hend I A Gouda
- Honey Bee Research Department, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt.
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Song Y, Shi J, Xiong Z, Shentu X, Yu X. Three antimicrobials alter gut microbial communities and causing different mortality of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens Stål. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 174:104806. [PMID: 33838707 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2021.104806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The symbionts in the gut of brown planthopper play an important role in the nutrition utilization and growth of their host, Nilaparvata lugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). Controlling the BPH infection on rice by inhibiting the symbionts using antimicrobials is feasible. However, the impact of antimicrobials on the microbiome in the gut has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we found the mortality reached 35.5%, 33.1% and 19.4%, when BPHs were exposed to toyocamycin, tebuconazole, and zhongshengmycin, respectively. Significant differences were found between the structures of gut microbial communities in adult BPHs treated with different antimicrobials and water. The antimicrobials reduced the fungal diversity by reducing the non-dominant fungi abundance, and increased bacterial diversity by inhibiting the dominant bacteria Acinetobacter in the gut. The diversification of taxonomic groups in gut depended on the different selective stress of antimicrobials. For the microbial absolute abundance, the total microbial gut community abundance decreased under antimicrobial exposure, but the absolute abundance of Serratia significantly increased in the antimicrobial treatment group. Overall, our study enriched the knowledge of microbiomes in the gut of BPH under the antimicrobial treatment and provided guidelines to enhance the pest management effect of BPH by using antimicrobials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Song
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Jiateng Shi
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Zhenze Xiong
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xuping Shentu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China.
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection and Quarantine, College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China.
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Antibiotic Treatment Decrease the Fitness of Honeybee ( Apis mellifera) Larvae. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12040301. [PMID: 33808048 PMCID: PMC8066305 DOI: 10.3390/insects12040301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary To determine the biologic function of gut bacteria with no host specificity in honeybee larvae, honeybee larvae were treated with antibiotics for disrupting the gut bacteria. Then, the body weight, development time, and expression of nutrient metabolism genes and immune genes of honeybee larvae were investigated. The results demonstrated that the disruption of gut microbiota by antibiotics weakened the nutrient metabolism, decreased the body weight, extended the development process, and decrease the immune competence of honeybee larvae, indicating the vital roles of gut bacteria in bee larvae fitness. Abstract Symbiotic bacteria could increase the nutrient provision, regulate the physiological state, and promote immunity in their insect host. Honeybee larvae harbor plenty of bacteria in their gut, but their functions are not well studied. To determine their effect on honeybee larvae, the 1-day-old larvae were grafted on to 24-well plates from the comb and artificially reared in the lab. They were treated with penicillin–streptomycin to remove the gut symbiotic bacteria. Then, the 5-day-old larvae and the newly emerged adults were weighted. The developmental periods to pupae and eclosion were investigated, respectively. The bacterial amount, expression of developmental regulation genes (ecr and usp), nutrient metabolism genes (ilp1, ilp2, hex 70a, hex 70b, hex 70c, and hex 110), and immunity genes (apidaecin, abaecin, defensin-1, and hymenoptaecin) were determined by qRT-PCR. The result showed that the antibiotics-treated larvae have significantly lower body weights in the 5-day-old larvae and the emerged bees. The expression of ilp2 and hex 70c in 5-day-old larvae was down-regulated. The usp was down-regulated in 5-day-old larvae, but increased in 7-day-old larvae, which disturbed the normal developmental process and caused the extension of eclosion. Moreover, antibiotics treatment significantly decreased the expression of apidaecin and abaecin in 5-day-old larvae, and defensin-1 and hymenoptaecin in 7-day-old larvae, respectively. These results showed that antibiotics could weaken the nutrient metabolism, disturb the development process, and decrease the immune competence of honeybee larvae, indicating the vital roles of gut bacteria in bee larvae fitness, so the antibiotics should be avoided to control microbial disease in honeybee larvae.
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Nowak A, Szczuka D, Górczyńska A, Motyl I, Kręgiel D. Characterization of Apis mellifera Gastrointestinal Microbiota and Lactic Acid Bacteria for Honeybee Protection-A Review. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030701. [PMID: 33809924 PMCID: PMC8004194 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous honeybee (Apis mellifera) products, such as honey, propolis, and bee venom, are used in traditional medicine to prevent illness and promote healing. Therefore, this insect has a huge impact on humans’ way of life and the environment. While the population of A. mellifera is large, there is concern that widespread commercialization of beekeeping, combined with environmental pollution and the action of bee pathogens, has caused significant problems for the health of honeybee populations. One of the strategies to preserve the welfare of honeybees is to better understand and protect their natural microbiota. This paper provides a unique overview of the latest research on the features and functioning of A. mellifera. Honeybee microbiome analysis focuses on both the function and numerous factors affecting it. In addition, we present the characteristics of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as an important part of the gut community and their special beneficial activities for honeybee health. The idea of probiotics for honeybees as a promising tool to improve their health is widely discussed. Knowledge of the natural gut microbiota provides an opportunity to create a broad strategy for honeybee vitality, including the development of modern probiotic preparations to use instead of conventional antibiotics, environmentally friendly biocides, and biological control agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Nowak
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Daria Szczuka
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
| | - Anna Górczyńska
- Faculty of Law and Administration, University of Lodz, Kopcińskiego 8/12, 90-232 Łódź, Poland;
| | - Ilona Motyl
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
| | - Dorota Kręgiel
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
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18
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Mohammad SM, Mahmud-Ab-Rashid NK, Zawawi N. Stingless Bee-Collected Pollen (Bee Bread): Chemical and Microbiology Properties and Health Benefits. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26040957. [PMID: 33670262 PMCID: PMC7917892 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Stingless bee-collected pollen (bee bread) is a mixture of bee pollen, bee salivary enzymes, and regurgitated honey, fermented by indigenous microbes during storage in the cerumen pot. Current literature data for bee bread is overshadowed by bee pollen, particularly of honeybee Apis. In regions such as South America, Australia, and Southeast Asia, information on stingless bee bee bread is mainly sought to promote the meliponiculture industry for socioeconomic development. This review aims to highlight the physicochemical properties and health benefits of bee bread from the stingless bee. In addition, it describes the current progress on identification of beneficial microbes associated with bee bread and its relation to the bee gut. This review provides the basis for promoting research on stingless bee bee bread, its nutrients, and microbes for application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salma Malihah Mohammad
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (S.M.M.); (N.-K.M.-A.-R.)
| | - Nor-Khaizura Mahmud-Ab-Rashid
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (S.M.M.); (N.-K.M.-A.-R.)
| | - Norhasnida Zawawi
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (S.M.M.); (N.-K.M.-A.-R.)
- Natural Medicines and Products Research Laboratory, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
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19
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Lamei S, Stephan JG, Nilson B, Sieuwerts S, Riesbeck K, de Miranda JR, Forsgren E. Feeding Honeybee Colonies with Honeybee-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria (Hbs-LAB) Does Not Affect Colony-Level Hbs-LAB Composition or Paenibacillus larvae Spore Levels, Although American Foulbrood Affected Colonies Harbor a More Diverse Hbs-LAB Community. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2020; 79:743-755. [PMID: 31506760 PMCID: PMC7176604 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-019-01434-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The main current methods for controlling American Foulbrood (AFB) in honeybees, caused by the bacterial pathogen Paenibacillus larvae, are enforced incineration or prophylactic antibiotic treatment, neither of which is fully satisfactory. This has led to an increased interest in the natural relationships between the pathogenic and mutualistic microorganisms of the honeybee microbiome, in particular, the antagonistic effects of Honeybee-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria (hbs-LAB) against P. larvae. We investigated whether supplemental administration of these bacteria affected P. larvae infection at colony level over an entire flowering season. Over the season, the supplements affected neither colony-level hbs-LAB composition nor naturally subclinical or clinical P. larvae spore levels. The composition of hbs-LAB in colonies was, however, more diverse in apiaries with a history of clinical AFB, although this was also unrelated to P. larvae spore levels. During the experiments, we also showed that qPCR could detect a wider range of hbs-LAB, with higher specificity and sensitivity than mass spectrometry. Honeybee colonies are complex super-organisms where social immune defenses, natural homeostatic mechanisms, and microbiome diversity and function play a major role in disease resistance. This means that observations made at the individual bee level cannot be simply extrapolated to infer similar effects at colony level. Although individual laboratory larval assays have clearly demonstrated the antagonistic effects of hbs-LAB on P. larvae infection, the results from the experiments presented here indicate that direct conversion of such practice to colony-level administration of live hbs-LAB is not effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepideh Lamei
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Jörg G Stephan
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
- Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Bo Nilson
- Clinical Microbiology, Labmedicine, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Laboratory Medicine Lund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Kristian Riesbeck
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Eva Forsgren
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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20
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Daisley BA, Pitek AP, Chmiel JA, Al KF, Chernyshova AM, Faragalla KM, Burton JP, Thompson GJ, Reid G. Novel probiotic approach to counter Paenibacillus larvae infection in honey bees. THE ISME JOURNAL 2020; 14:476-491. [PMID: 31664160 PMCID: PMC6976702 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0541-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
American foulbrood (AFB) is a highly virulent disease afflicting honey bees (Apis mellifera). The causative organism, Paenibacillus larvae, attacks honey bee brood and renders entire hives dysfunctional during active disease states, but more commonly resides in hives asymptomatically as inactive spores that elude even vigilant beekeepers. The mechanism of this pathogenic transition is not fully understood, and no cure exists for AFB. Here, we evaluated how hive supplementation with probiotic lactobacilli (delivered through a nutrient patty; BioPatty) affected colony resistance towards a naturally occurring AFB outbreak. Results demonstrated a significantly lower pathogen load and proteolytic activity of honey bee larvae from BioPatty-treated hives. Interestingly, a distinctive shift in the microbiota composition of adult nurse bees occurred irrespective of treatment group during the monitoring period, but only vehicle-supplemented nurse bees exhibited higher P. larvae loads. In vitro experiments utilizing laboratory-reared honey bee larvae showed Lactobacillus plantarum Lp39, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1, and Lactobacillus kunkeei BR-1 (contained in the BioPatty) could reduce pathogen load, upregulate expression of key immune genes, and improve survival during P. larvae infection. These findings suggest the usage of a lactobacilli-containing hive supplement, which is practical and affordable for beekeepers, may be effective for reducing enzootic pathogen-related hive losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan A Daisley
- Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotic Research, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Andrew P Pitek
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - John A Chmiel
- Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotic Research, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Kait F Al
- Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotic Research, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Anna M Chernyshova
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | | | - Jeremy P Burton
- Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotic Research, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Surgery, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Graham J Thompson
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Gregor Reid
- Centre for Human Microbiome and Probiotic Research, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
- Department of Surgery, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
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21
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Ramos OY, Basualdo M, Libonatti C, Vega MF. Current status and application of lactic acid bacteria in animal production systems with a focus on bacteria from honey bee colonies. J Appl Microbiol 2019; 128:1248-1260. [PMID: 31566847 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely distributed in nature and, due to their beneficial effects on the host, are used as probiotics. This review describes the applications of LAB in animal production systems such as beekeeping, poultry, swine and bovine production, particularly as probiotics used to improve health, enhance growth and reproductive performance. Given the importance of honeybees in nature and the beekeeping industry as a producer of healthy food worldwide, the focus of this review is on the coexistence of LAB with honeybees, their food and environment. The main LAB species isolated from the beehive and their potential technological use are described. Evidence is provided that 43 LAB bacteria species have been isolated from beehives, of which 20 showed inhibition against 28 species of human and animal pathogens, some of which are resistant to antibiotics. Additionally, the presence of LAB in the beehive and their relationship with antibacterial properties of honey and pollen is discussed. Finally, we describe the use of lactic bacteria from bee colonies and their antimicrobial effect against foodborne pathogens and human health. This review broadens knowledge by highlighting the importance of honeybee colonies as suppliers of LAB and functional food.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Y Ramos
- PROANVET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Basualdo
- PROANVET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - C Libonatti
- PROANVET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M F Vega
- PROANVET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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22
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Stephan JG, Lamei S, Pettis JS, Riesbeck K, de Miranda JR, Forsgren E. Honeybee-Specific Lactic Acid Bacterium Supplements Have No Effect on American Foulbrood-Infected Honeybee Colonies. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:e00606-19. [PMID: 31003985 PMCID: PMC6581185 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00606-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paenibacillus larvae, the causative agent of American foulbrood (AFB), is the primary bacterial pathogen affecting honeybees and beekeeping. The main methods for controlling AFB are incineration of diseased colonies or prophylactic antibiotic treatment (e.g., with tylosin), neither of which is fully satisfactory. The search for superior means for controlling AFB has led to an increased interest in the natural relationships between the honeybee-pathogenic and mutualistic microorganisms and, in particular, the antagonistic effects of honeybee-specific lactic acid bacteria (hbs-LAB) against P. larvae These effects have been demonstrated only on individual larvae in controlled laboratory bioassays. Here we investigated whether supplemental administration of hbs-LAB had a similar beneficial effect on P. larvae infection at colony level. We compared experimentally AFB-infected colonies treated with hbs-LAB supplements to untreated and tylosin-treated colonies and recorded AFB symptoms, bacterial spore levels, and two measures of colony health. To account for the complexity of a bee colony, we focused on (Bayesian) probabilities and magnitudes of effect sizes. Tylosin reduced AFB disease symptoms but also had a negative effect on colony strength. The tylosin treatment did not, however, affect P. larvae spore levels and might therefore "mask" the potential for disease. hbs-LAB tended to reduce brood size in the short term but was unlikely to affect AFB symptoms or spores. These results do not contradict demonstrated antagonistic effects of hbs-LAB against P. larvae at the individual bee level but rather suggest that supplementary administration of hbs-LAB may not be the most effective way to harness these beneficial effects at the colony level.IMPORTANCE The previously demonstrated antagonistic effects of honeybee-derived bacterial microbiota on the infectivity and pathogenicity of P. larvae in laboratory bioassays have identified a possible new approach to AFB control. However, honeybee colonies are complex superorganisms where social immune defenses play a major role in resistance against disease at the colony level. Few studies have investigated the effect of beneficial microorganisms on bee diseases at the colony level. Effects observed at the individual bee level do not necessarily translate into similar effects at the colony level. This study partially fills this gap by showing that, unlike at the individual level, hbs-LAB supplements did not affect AFB symptoms at the colony level. The inference is that the mechanisms regulating the honeybee microbial dynamics within a colony are too strong to manipulate positively through supplemental feeding of live hbs-LAB and that new potential remedies identified through laboratory research have to be tested thoroughly in situ, in colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg G Stephan
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sepideh Lamei
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Jeffery S Pettis
- USDA ARS, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center-East, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Kristian Riesbeck
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Eva Forsgren
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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23
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Ricigliano VA, Mott BM, Floyd AS, Copeland DC, Carroll MJ, Anderson KE. Honey bees overwintering in a southern climate: longitudinal effects of nutrition and queen age on colony-level molecular physiology and performance. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10475. [PMID: 29992997 PMCID: PMC6041268 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28732-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bee colony nutritional ecology relies on the acquisition and assimilation of floral resources across a landscape with changing forage conditions. Here, we examined the impact of nutrition and queen age on colony health across extended periods of reduced forage in a southern climate. We measured conventional hive metrics as well as colony-level gene expression of eight immune-related genes and three recently identified homologs of vitellogenin (vg), a storage glycolipoprotein central to colony nutritional state, immunity, oxidative stress resistance and life span regulation. Across three apiary sites, concurrent longitudinal changes in colony-level gene expression and nutritional state reflected the production of diutinus (winter) bees physiologically altered for long-term nutrient storage. Brood production by young queens was significantly greater than that of old queens, and was augmented by feeding colonies supplemental pollen. Expression analyses of recently identified vg homologs (vg-like-A, -B, and -C) revealed distinct patterns that correlated with colony performance, phenology, and immune-related gene transcript levels. Our findings provide new insights into dynamics underlying managed colony performance on a large scale. Colony-level, molecular physiological profiling is a promising approach to effectively identify factors influencing honey bee health in future landscape and nutrition studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brendon M Mott
- USDA-ARS Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Amy S Floyd
- Department of Entomology and Center for Insect Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Duan C Copeland
- USDA-ARS Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA.,Department of Microbiology, School of Animal & Comparative Biomedical Sciences; University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Mark J Carroll
- USDA-ARS Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Kirk E Anderson
- USDA-ARS Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA. .,Department of Entomology and Center for Insect Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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Felicioli A, Turchi B, Fratini F, Giusti M, Nuvoloni R, Dani FR, Sagona S. Proteinase pattern of honeybee prepupae from healthy and American Foulbrood infected bees investigated by zymography. Electrophoresis 2018; 39:2160-2167. [PMID: 29761912 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
American foulbrood disease (AFB) is the main devastating disease that affects honeybees' brood, caused by Paenibacillus larvae. The trend of the research on AFB has addressed the mechanisms by which P. larvae bacteria kill honeybee larvae. Since prepupae could react to the infection of AFB by increasing protease synthesis, the aim of this work was to compare protease activity in worker prepupae belonging to healthy colonies and to colonies affected by AFB. This investigation was performed by zymography. In gel, proteolytic activity was observed in prepupae extracts belonging only to the healthy colonies. In the prepupae extracts, 2D zimography followed by protein identification by MS allowed to detect Trypsin-1 and Chymotrypsin-1, which were not observed in diseased specimens. Further investigations are needed to clarify the involvement of these proteinases in the immune response of honeybee larvae and the mechanisms by which P. larvae inhibits protease production in its host.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Turchi
- Department of Veterinary Science, Pisa University, Pisa, Italy
| | - Filippo Fratini
- Department of Veterinary Science, Pisa University, Pisa, Italy
| | - Matteo Giusti
- Department of Veterinary Science, Pisa University, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Romana Dani
- Department of Biology, University of Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy.,Mass Spectrometry Centre (CISM) of Florence University, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Simona Sagona
- Department of Veterinary Science, Pisa University, Pisa, Italy
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25
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Negri P, Ramirez L, Quintana S, Szawarski N, Maggi M, Le Conte Y, Lamattina L, Eguaras M. Dietary Supplementation of Honey Bee Larvae with Arginine and Abscisic Acid Enhances Nitric Oxide and Granulocyte Immune Responses after Trauma. INSECTS 2017; 8:insects8030085. [PMID: 28809782 PMCID: PMC5620705 DOI: 10.3390/insects8030085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Many biotic and abiotic stressors impact bees' health, acting as immunosupressors and contribute to colony losses. Thus, the importance of studying the immune response of honey bees is central to develop new strategies aiming to enhance bees' fitness to confront the threats affecting them. If a pathogen breaches the physical and chemical barriers, honey bees can protect themselves from infection with cellular and humoral immune responses which represent a second line of defense. Through a series of correlative studies we have previously reported that abscisic acid (ABA) and nitric oxide (NO) share roles in the same immune defenses of Apis mellifera (A. mellifera). Here we show results supporting that the supplementation of bee larvae's diet reared in vitro with l-Arginine (precursor of NO) or ABA enhanced the immune activation of the granulocytes in response to wounding and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Negri
- Centro de Investigación en Abejas Sociales (CIAS), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
| | - Leonor Ramirez
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas (IIB-CONICET), UNMdP, Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
| | - Silvina Quintana
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Farestaie, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
| | - Nicolás Szawarski
- Centro de Investigación en Abejas Sociales (CIAS), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
| | - Matías Maggi
- Centro de Investigación en Abejas Sociales (CIAS), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
| | - Yves Le Conte
- INRA Centre de Recherche Provence-Alpes-Côted'Azur, Unitè Abeilles et Environnement, UMR PrADE, Domaine Saint Paul, Site Agroparc, Avignon F-84914, France.
| | - Lorenzo Lamattina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas (IIB-CONICET), UNMdP, Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
| | - Martin Eguaras
- Centro de Investigación en Abejas Sociales (CIAS), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Dean Funes 3350, Mar del Plata CP 7600, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Godoy Cruz 2290, Argentina.
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26
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Neto DPDC, Vinícius de Melo G, Pereira, César de Carvalho J, Soccol VT, Soccol CR. High-Throughput rRNA Gene Sequencing Reveals High
and Complex Bacterial Diversity Associated with
Brazilian Coffee Bean Fermentation. Food Technol Biotechnol 2017; 56:90-95. [PMID: 29796001 DOI: 10.17113/ftb.56.01.18.5441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Coffee bean fermentation is a spontaneous, on-farm process involving the action of different microbial groups, including bacteria and fungi. In this study, high-throughput sequencing approach was employed to study the diversity and dynamics of bacteria associated with Brazilian coffee bean fermentation. The total DNA from fermenting coffee samples was extracted at different time points, and the 16S rRNA gene with segments around the V4 variable region was sequenced by Illumina high-throughput platform. Using this approach, the presence of over eighty bacterial genera was determined, many of which have been detected for the first time during coffee bean fermentation, including Fructobacillus, Pseudonocardia, Pedobacter, Sphingomonas and Hymenobacter. The presence of Fructobacillus suggests an influence of these bacteria on fructose metabolism during coffee fermentation. Temporal analysis showed a strong dominance of lactic acid bacteria with over 97% of read sequences at the end of fermentation, mainly represented by the Leuconostoc and Lactococcus. Metabolism of lactic acid bacteria was associated with the high formation of lactic acid during fermentation, as determined by HPLC analysis. The results reported in this study confirm the underestimation of bacterial diversity associated with coffee fermentation. New microbial groups reported in this study may be explored as functional starter cultures for on-farm coffee processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dão Pedro de Carvalho Neto
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Gilberto Vinícius de Melo
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Pereira
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Júlio César de Carvalho
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Vanete Thomaz Soccol
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Carlos Ricardo Soccol
- Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Paraná Curitiba, PR 81531-980, Brazil
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27
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Riaz Rajoka MS, Shi J, Zhu J, Shao D, Huang Q, Yang H, Jin M. Capacity of lactic acid bacteria in immunity enhancement and cancer prevention. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 101:35-45. [PMID: 27888334 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-8005-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Lactic acid bacteria are associated with the human gastrointestinal tract. They are important for maintaining the balance of microflora in the human gut. An increasing number of published research reports in recent years have denoted the importance of producing interferon-gamma and IgA for treatment of disease. These agents can enhance the specific and nonspecific immune systems that are dependent on specific bacterial strains. The mechanisms of these effects were revealed in this investigation, where the cell walls of these bacteria were modulated by the cytokine pathways, while the whole bacterial cell mediated the host cell immune system and regulated the production of tumor necrosis factors and interleukins. A supplement of highly active lactic acid bacteria strains provided significant potential to enhance host's immunity, offering prevention from many diseases including some cancers. This review summarizes the current understanding of the function of lactic acid bacteria immunity enhancement and cancer prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shahid Riaz Rajoka
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Junling Shi
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jing Zhu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyan Shao
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingsheng Huang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Yang
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingliang Jin
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
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28
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Beneficial microorganisms for honey bees: problems and progresses. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:9469-9482. [PMID: 27717968 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7870-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, honey bees are stressed by a number of biotic and abiotic factors which may compromise to some extent the pollination service and the hive productivity. The EU ban of antibiotics as therapeutic agents against bee pathogens has stimulated the search for natural alternatives. The increasing knowledge on the composition and functions of the bee gut microbiota and the link between a balanced gut microbiota and health status have encouraged the research on the use of gut microorganisms to improve bee health. Somehow, we are assisting to the transfer of the "probiotic concept" into the bee science. In this review, we examine the role of the honey bee gut microbiota in bee health and critically describe the available applications of beneficial microorganisms as pest control agents and health support. Most of the strains, mainly belonging to the genera Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Bacillus, are isolated from honey bee crop or gut, but some applications involve environmental strains or formulation for animal and human consumption. Overall, the obtained results show the favourable effect of applied microbial strains on bee health and productivity, in particular if strains of bee origin are used. However, it is actually not yet possible to conclude whether this strategy will ever work. In particular, many aspects regarding the overall setup of the experiments, the dose, the timing and the duration of the treatment need to be optimized, also considering the microbiological safety of the hive products (i.e. pollen and honey). In addition, a deep investigation about the effect on host immunity and physiology is envisaged. Lastly, the final users of the formulations, i.e. beekeepers, should be taken into account for the achievement of high-quality, cost-effective and easy-to-use products.
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