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Hayes CC, Schal C. Review on the impacts of indoor vector control on domiciliary pests: good intentions challenged by harsh realities. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20240609. [PMID: 39043243 PMCID: PMC11265923 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.0609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Arthropod vectored diseases have been a major impediment to societal advancements globally. Strategies to mitigate transmission of these diseases include preventative care (e.g. vaccination), primary treatment and most notably, the suppression of vectors in both indoor and outdoor spaces. The outcomes of indoor vector control (IVC) strategies, such as long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual sprays (IRSs), are heavily influenced by individual and community-level perceptions and acceptance. These perceptions, and therefore product acceptance, are largely influenced by the successful suppression of non-target nuisance pests such as bed bugs and cockroaches. Adoption and consistent use of LLINs and IRS is responsible for immense reductions in the prevalence and incidence of malaria. However, recent observations suggest that failed control of indoor pests, leading to product distrust and abandonment, may threaten vector control programme success and further derail already slowed progress towards malaria elimination. We review the evidence of the relationship between IVC and nuisance pests and discuss the dearth of research on this relationship. We make the case that the ancillary control of indoor nuisance and public health pests needs to be considered in the development and implementation of new technologies for malaria elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C. Hayes
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 7613, Raleigh, NC27695-7613, USA
| | - Coby Schal
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 7613, Raleigh, NC27695-7613, USA
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Ashbrook AR, Feder JL, Bennett GW, Ginzel MD, Gondhalekar AD. Lethal and sublethal heat-exposure of bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) causes alarm pheromone emission and elicits a movement response in nearby recipients. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8555. [PMID: 38609415 PMCID: PMC11014846 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57925-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Many gregarious insect species use aggregation and alarm pheromones. The bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., emits an alarm pheromone (AP), a 70/30 blend of (E)-2-hexenal and (E)-2-octenal, when threatened. Bed bugs avoid temperatures above 43 °C, which are lethal to bugs and used commercially as spatial heat treatments to manage infestations. However, the interaction of bed bug AP in heat avoidance has not been investigated. The goal of this research was to: 1) determine if bed bugs emit AP as an alarm response to heat exposure, and 2) quantify the behavioral responses of conspecifics to AP emitted by heat-exposed bed bugs. Using a selected ion flow tube mass spectrometer, we found that bed bugs responded to lethal and sublethal heat exposure by emitting AP. The Harlan laboratory population emitted more pheromone than a laboratory adapted field population from Florida (McCall). Harlan females emitted the most AP, followed by Harlan males, McCall females and males. In separate behavioral experiments, we showed that conspecifics (i.e., recipients) reacted to AP released by heat exposed bed bugs (i.e., emitters) by frantically moving within 50 mm and 100 mm test arenas. The Harlan recipients reacted to AP in 100 mm areas, whereas the McCall strain did not, indicating a short area of effectiveness of the AP. Synthetic AP components tested in behavioral experiments caused identical effects as the natural AP blend released by heat-exposed bed bugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron R Ashbrook
- Department of Entomology, Louisiana State University, 404 Life Sciences Building, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA.
| | - Jeffrey L Feder
- Department of Biological Sciences, 100 Galvin Life Science Center, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Gary W Bennett
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, 901 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN, 47901, USA
| | - Matthew D Ginzel
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, 901 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN, 47901, USA
| | - Ameya D Gondhalekar
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, 901 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN, 47901, USA.
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Leung AKC, Lam JM, Barankin B, Leong KF, Hon KL. Bed Bug Infestation: An Updated Review. Curr Pediatr Rev 2024; 20:137-149. [PMID: 37038684 DOI: 10.2174/1573396320666230406084801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, there has been a global resurgence of bed bug infestations, especially in developed countries. Proper awareness and identification of bed bug infestations are essential to guide treatment and eradication. The purpose of this article is to familiarize physicians with bed bug bites so that they can effectively diagnose, treat, and address questions about bed bug bites and infestations. Bed bug bites are often painless. Typical reactions include pruritic, erythematous maculopapules occurring in clusters or in a linear or curvilinear distribution in exposed areas of the body. A small red punctum may be visualized at the center of the bite mark. Lesions that appear three in a row and papules on the upper eyelid associated with erythema and edema are highly suggestive of bites from bed bugs. Exaggerated local reactions such as vesicles, urticarial wheals, urticarial perilesional plaques, diffuse urticaria, bullae, and nodules may occur in previously sensitized individuals. Reactions to bed bug bites are self-limited. As such, treatment is mainly symptomatic. Topical pramoxine and oral antihistamines can be used to alleviate pruritus. Topical corticosteroids can be used for significant eruptions to control inflammation and pruritus, and to hasten resolution of the lesions. Integrated pest management, an approach for the eradication of bed bugs, includes monitoring devices (active monitors include the use of heat or carbon dioxide attractants and passive monitors include the use of sticky pads for trapping), and judicious use of nonchemical and chemical treatments known to be effective. Nonchemical interventions include keeping affected areas clean and free of clutter, vacuuming, washing linens with hot water, caulking wall holes and cracks where bugs can hide, proper disposal of highly infested items, and placement of bed bug traps/interceptors at the base of beds and furniture. Chemical interventions involve the use of insecticides such as synthetic pyrethroids, silicates, insect growth disruptors, carbamates, organophosphates, neonicotinoids, diethyl-meta-toluamide, chlorfenapyr, fipronil and plant essential oils. Insecticides should be used with caution to prevent over-exposure and toxicity (in particular, cardiovascular and neurologic toxicity), especially if there are young children around. It is important to note that multiple mechanisms of insecticide resistance exist and as such, chemical treatment should only be undertaken by trained professionals who understand the current literature on resistance. Both nonchemical and chemical technologies should be combined for optimal results. Bed bug infestations may cause diverse dermal reactions, stigmatization, poor self-esteem, emotional stress, anxiety, significant adverse effect on quality of life, and substantial socioeconomic burden to society. As such, their rapid detection and eradication are of paramount importance. Consultation with a professional exterminator is recommended to fully eradicate an infestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander K C Leung
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Calgary, Alberta Children's Hospital, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Joseph M Lam
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Dermatology and Skin Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Kin Fon Leong
- Pediatric Institute, Kuala Lumpur General Hospital, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kam Lun Hon
- Department of Paediatrics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Hong Kong Children's Hospital, Hong Kong, China
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Lee CY, Wang C, Su NY. Perspective on Biology and Management of Bed Bugs: Introduction. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2023; 116:1-4. [PMID: 36226901 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toac141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Bed bugs are an important group of medical and urban insect pests. They are obligate blood-feeders. Their bites may cause skin irritation and allergic reactions and, under some circumstances, may lead to mental and other health issues. Despite numerous discoveries on the biology of these obnoxious pests and progress in control strategies over the last two decades, bed bugs continue to preferentially plague those from low socioeconomic communities because the poor generally could not afford effective control options. As a result, such infestations in poorer communities serve as a reservoir for wider society. This Special Collection of the Perspective on Biology and Management of Bed Bugs presents nine original research papers on bed bug detection, insecticide performance and resistance, nonchemical treatment, fungal biopesticides, and pest management procurement and contracts. We hope that these investigative findings will spur research on safer, more affordable, and effective control options in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chow-Yang Lee
- Department of Entomology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Changlu Wang
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Nan-Yao Su
- Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Davie, FL 33314, USA
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Kong D, Han D, Zhai R, Wang C, Zhang J, Xia Y, Nian X, Liu C, He Y, Wang D. A Case Study on Tropical Bed Bug, Cimex hemipterus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) Infestation and Management in Dormitories. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2023; 116:5-11. [PMID: 35511752 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toac055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Numerous bed bug research papers have been published in the past 20 yr as a result of bed bug (Cimex spp.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) resurgence in the world. Yet, few of them focused on the management of the tropical bed bug, C. hemipterus (F.). Here, we describe a case of tropical bed bug infestation in two dormitory buildings and effectiveness of a tropical bed bug treatment program. The study site consisted of 125 dormitories in two buildings. An initial building-wide monitoring with ClimbUp interceptors revealed 25 infestations. The spatial distribution of bed bug infested rooms showed a significant aggregated distribution pattern with same infestation status for neighboring units sharing walls. All infested rooms were monitored every 2 wk and treated using a combination of steam and diatomaceous earth (DE) dust application if bed bugs were still found. For the 25 initially identified infested rooms, after 14 wk treatment, 44% of them no longer had bed bugs, and the mean number of bed bugs captured per room decreased by 94.1%. A combination of steam and DE dust treatment is an effective strategy for suppressing tropical bed bug infestations in dormitory environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delong Kong
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Dongliang Han
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ruyue Zhai
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Changlu Wang
- Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Jingsheng Zhang
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yanwei Xia
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaoge Nian
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chaofeng Liu
- Department of Statistics, Purdue University, 250 N. University St., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Yurong He
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Desen Wang
- Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangdong Province, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Engineering Research Center of Biological Control, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Kells SA, Kells AM. Comparative Insecticide Uptake Characteristics of Chlorfenapyr Suggests an Additional Reason Why Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are so Difficult to Control. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 115:1659-1667. [PMID: 36000777 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toac128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Insecticides interact with biochemical sites, disrupting homeostasis, leading to moribundity and death. Considering this process of intoxication, investigating insecticide uptake ensures an understanding of exposure profile. This study evaluated insecticide uptake by bed bugs, Cimex lectularius L., as affected by time and formulation, and a comparative uptake by German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.). Insects exposed to chlorfenapyr residues from two Phantom insecticide formulations (i.e., Aerosol and Suspended Concentrate (SC)) were solvent extracted and analyzed by GC-ECD. Chlorfenapyr uptake by bed bugs significantly increased with time, but the rate of external chlorfenapyr adsorption between the two formulations was not significantly different. However, initial exposure and uptake to the aerosol-treated versus SC-treated surfaces were significantly greater by 2.7x. Absorption-rates of chlorfenapyr residues inside the insect, associated with internal insect tissues or exoskeleton-bound, were significantly lower compared with external adsorption, with aerosol and SC formulations accumulating at 4.8x and 14.4x less, respectively. An unexpected formulation effect occurred with aerosol-treated papers and aging of residues. A reformulation of the aerosol provided a greater adsorption of chlorfenapyr at 19.1x that of the original formula after 2 hr. External versus internal uptake of chlorfenapyr by cockroaches was inverse to that seen in bed bugs, with greater chlorfenapyr absorption. Obstructing cockroach mouthparts prevented an internal uptake of chlorfenapyr and provided a similar exposure profile to bed bugs. This work demonstrates a need to evaluate insecticide uptake with formulation and insect morphology to maximize dose, especially in such a morphologically and environmentally isolated insect as the bed bug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Kells
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, 219 Hodson Hall, 1980 Folwell Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Alice M Kells
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, 219 Hodson Hall, 1980 Folwell Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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7
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Ghavami MB, Ghahremani Z, Raeisi N, Taghiloo B. High levels of pyrethroid resistance and super-kdr mutations in the populations of tropical bed bug, Cimex hemipterus, in Iran. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:470. [PMID: 34521460 PMCID: PMC8439044 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04962-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The tropical bed bug, Cimex hemipterus, is an important ectoparasite causing various health problems. This species is mainly confined to tropical regions; however, insecticide resistance, global warming, and globalization have changed its distribution map. Molecular information on pyrethroid resistance, which is essential for the development of control programs, is unknown for C. hemipterus in expanded areas. The present study was designed to determine the permethrin resistance status, characterize the pyrethroid receptor sites in voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc) gene, and identify the resistance-related mutations in the populations of tropical bed bug in Iran. Methods Live bed bugs were collected, and adults of C. hemipterus were selected for bioassay and molecular surveys. Bioassay was performed by tarsal contact with permethrin 0.75% in mixed-sex of samples. Conventional and quantitative TaqMan and SYBR Green real-time PCR assays were conducted to characterize the vgsc gene and genotypes of studied populations. Results In the bioassay tests, the mortality rates were in the range of 30.7–38.7% and 56.2–77.4% in 24 and 48 h, respectively. The knockdown rates of studied populations were in the range of 32.2–46.6% and 61.5–83.8% in the first and second days, respectively. The KT50 and KT90 values in the Cimex lectularius Kh1 strain were presented as 5.39 and 15.55 h, respectively. These values in the selected populations of C. hemipterus varied from 27.9 to 29.5 and from 82.8 to 104.4 h, respectively. Knockdown time ratios (KR50 and KR90) in these populations varied from 5.17 to 6.17-fold compared with those of the C. lectularius Kh1 strain. Fragments of vgsc gene with 355 bp and 812 bp were amplified. Analysis of sequences revealed the A468T substitution, kdr-associated D953G, and super-kdr M918I and L1014F mutations in all populations. Conclusions The specific/sensitive, safe, and rapid diagnostic assays developed in this study are recommended for detection of kdr/super-kdr mutations and frequency of mutant alleles. The presence of super-kdr mutations and high resistance to permethrin in all the populations necessitate the reconsideration of control approaches against C. hemipterus. Graphical Abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Bagher Ghavami
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.
| | - Zarafat Ghahremani
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Narges Raeisi
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Behrooz Taghiloo
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
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8
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Gaire S, Zheng W, Scharf ME, Gondhalekar AD. Plant essential oil constituents enhance deltamethrin toxicity in a resistant population of bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) by inhibiting cytochrome P450 enzymes. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 175:104829. [PMID: 33993977 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2021.104829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Plant essential oils (EOs) are secondary metabolites derived from aromatic plants that are composed of complex mixtures of chemical constituents. EOs have been proposed as one of the alternative methods for bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) control. In insecticide resistant mosquitoes and tobacco cutworm, EOs synergize pyrethroid toxicity by inhibiting detoxification enzymes. However, whether EOs and their constituents enhance pyrethroid toxicity in C. lectularius has remained unknown. Therefore, this study was designed to (i) determine the effects of binary mixtures of deltamethrin (a pyrethroid insecticide) with EOs or EO constituents or EcoRaider® (an EO-based product) on mortality of insecticide resistant and susceptible bed bugs, and (ii) evaluate the effects of EO constituent pre-treatment on detoxification enzyme activities of resistant and susceptible populations. Topical bioassays with binary mixtures of deltamethrin and individual EOs (e.g., thyme, oregano, clove, geranium or coriander oils) or their major constituents (e.g., thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, geraniol or linalool) or EcoRaider® at doses that kill approximately 25% of bed bugs caused significant increases in mortality of resistant bed bugs. However, in the susceptible population, only coriander oil, EcoRaider®, thymol, and carvacrol significantly increased the toxicity of deltamethrin. Detoxification enzyme assays with protein extracts from bed bugs pre-treated with EO constituents suggested selective inhibition of cytochrome P450 activity in the resistant population, but no impacts were observed on esterase and glutathione transferase activities in either population. Inhibition of P450 activity by EO constituents thus appears to be one of the mechanisms of deltamethrin toxicity enhancement in resistant bed bugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudip Gaire
- Center for Urban and Industrial Pest Management, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Wei Zheng
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Michael E Scharf
- Center for Urban and Industrial Pest Management, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Ameya D Gondhalekar
- Center for Urban and Industrial Pest Management, Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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9
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Todd DB, Miller DM, Gordon JR. Field Evaluations of Sulfuryl Fluoride Fumigation for Control of the Common Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), Using a 1.9× Dosage Factor in Motor Vehicles and Filled Cargo Trailers. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 114:857-867. [PMID: 33704428 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toab033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the efficacy of using Vikane gas fumigant (sulfuryl fluoride) at the 1.9× dosage rate for eliminating bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) in two challenging infestation situations: personal vehicles, and confined spaces densely packed with personal belongings. The vehicles used in this study were large minivans with seating that folded into the floor. The confined spaces were cargo trailers filled to 85% capacity with books, furniture, and other household items. Each van and trailer was equipped with ~90 sentinel bed bugs consisting of three groups of 9-11 bed bug eggs, 10 nymphs, and 10 adults. The Vikane Fumiguide calculator was used to determine the target dosage (g-h/m3) to apply in each replicate (e.g., one van or trailer). Sulfuryl fluoride concentrations were measured throughout the fumigation process using a Spectros SF-ReportIR. Concentration readings were input into the Fumiguide to determine when the accumulated dosage (g-h/m3) was achieved, and when aeration should be initiated. After aeration was complete, the sentinel bed bugs were removed from the replicates and bed bug nymph and adult mortality was recorded. Bed bug eggs were monitored for 23 d to determine latent mortality. Fumigated bed bug mortality for each replication was 100% regardless of life stage. Latent mortality was observed in a single bed bug egg, but the first instar never fully eclosed. This study determined that fumigation with sulfuryl fluoride at the 1.9× dosage factor is an effective method for eliminating resistant bed bugs from vehicles and personal belongings in densely packed situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Todd
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - D M Miller
- Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - J R Gordon
- Douglas Products and Packaging Company, LLC, Liberty, MO, USA
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10
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Krüger A, Schmolz E, Vander Pan A. Methods for Testing Repellents Against Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 114:265-273. [PMID: 33420500 PMCID: PMC7871147 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toaa304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bed bug repellents should not only prevent humans from being bitten but impede an infestation of personal belongings. Only a few test proposals for evaluating the efficacy of repellents against bed bugs have been published so far. In the present study, two test systems were assessed for efficacy testing with five potential bed bug repellents (cinnamon oil, icaridin, N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET), permethrin, and margosa extract). The first test setup was a harborage choice test system that consisted of a crystallizing dish with a treated and an untreated harborage. Sixty minutes and 24 h after treatment, DEET, icaridin, and cinnamon oil showed the highest repellency with a median proportion of at least 99% repelled bed bugs. The second test system was a barrier test. Bed bugs were attracted by CO2 and heat to cross filter papers treated with the potential repellents. The repellency of substances was significantly lower in comparison to the harborage choice test, except for DEET. The latter showed the highest repellency (97%) against bed bugs 24 h after application compared to controls. Results show that bed bugs are less sensitive to repellents when searching for a bloodmeal than when searching for a shelter.
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Jones SC. Magnitude and Spread of Bed Bugs ( Cimex lectularius) throughout Ohio (USA) Revealed by Surveys of Pest Management Industry. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12020133. [PMID: 33557124 PMCID: PMC7913827 DOI: 10.3390/insects12020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Bed bugs are small blood-sucking insects that live indoors and feed on humans. They have become a problem in countries worldwide. In this study, the problem in Ohio (Midwest U.S.) was measured based on treatments by licensed pest control companies throughout the state. Results from 2005 showed that Ohio’s bed bug problem likely started in Hamilton County, which includes Cincinnati. Much larger numbers of bed bug treatments were performed in 2011 and again in 2016, especially in counties with large cities. Almost every Ohio county had numerous bed bug treatments in 2016. Most treatments were in apartments/condos and single-family homes. Residents misused many pesticides, especially over-the-counter “bug bombs” and household cleaners, trying to eliminate bed bugs. Many people also threw away unwrapped infested furniture, which may further spread these bugs. More public education is needed to stop such practices. This study shows that bed bug problems can grow and spread quickly. Federal, state, and local officials and the public should immediately deal with bed bugs rather than waiting until they become an even bigger problem. Abstract Bed bugs have recently re-emerged as human pests worldwide. In this study, two surveys queried licensed pest management companies in Ohio (Midwest USA) about their experiences managing bed bugs. A primary objective was to assess the magnitude and spread of bed bug infestations statewide based on companies’ treatment records from 2005 and 2011 (first survey) and 2016 (second survey). The survey response rates were 35.6% and 31.6%, respectively. Treatment data from 2005 indicated that Ohio’s bed bug problem likely started in the SW corner of the state in Hamilton County (includes city of Cincinnati), since it totaled five times more treatments (approximately 4500) than second-ranking, centrally located Franklin County (Columbus). In the first half of 2011, more than 15,000 treatments were performed in these two counties. In 2016, treatments reached nearly 38,000 in Franklin County and in NE Ohio in the three combined counties that include Cleveland-Akron-Canton. Bed bug problems expanded statewide during an 11 y period, with an estimated 100+ treatments in 7 counties in 2005, 45 counties in 2011, and nearly all 88 counties in 2016. Apartments/condos and single-family residences comprised the largest share of bed bug work. Residents misused many pesticides and household cleaners trying to eliminate bed bugs. Many also discarded unwrapped infested furniture, which may further spread these bugs. More public education is needed to stop such practices. This study shows that bed bug problems grow and spread quickly; federal, state, and local officials and the public should immediately deal with bed bugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan C Jones
- Department of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1065, USA
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Gaire S, Lewis CD, Booth W, Scharf ME, Zheng W, Ginzel MD, Gondhalekar AD. Bed bugs, Cimex lectularius L., exhibiting metabolic and target site deltamethrin resistance are susceptible to plant essential oils. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 169:104667. [PMID: 32828373 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2020.104667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Pyrethroid resistance has been a major hurdle limiting the effective control of bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.). Alternative approaches that include the use of plant essential oils (EOs) have been proposed for effective management of bed bugs. However, EO resistance level comparisons between pyrethroid susceptible and resistant bed bug populations have not been previously conducted. The goal of this study was twofold: (i) determine deltamethrin resistance levels and associated resistance mechanisms in the field-collected Knoxville strain and (ii) quantify resistance levels of the Knoxville strain to five EOs (thyme, oregano, clove, geranium and coriander), their major insecticidal constituents (thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, geraniol and linalool) and an EO-based product (EcoRaider®). First, we found that the Knoxville strain was 72,893 and 291,626 fold more resistant to topically applied deltamethrin in comparison to the susceptible Harlan strain at the LD25 and LD50 lethal dose levels, respectively. Synergist bioassays and detoxification enzyme assays revealed significantly higher activity of cytochrome P450 and esterase enzymes in the resistant Knoxville strain. Further, Sanger sequencing revealed the presence of the L925I mutation in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel α subunit gene. The Knoxville strain that possesses both enzymatic and target site deltamethrin resistance, however, did not show any resistance to EOs, their major insecticidal constituents and EcoRaider® in topical bioassays (resistance ratio of ~1). In conclusion, this study demonstrated that a deltamethrin-resistant strain of bed bugs is susceptible to EOs and their insecticidal constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudip Gaire
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Current address: Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Cari D Lewis
- Department of Biological Science, The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Warren Booth
- Department of Biological Science, The University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA
| | - Michael E Scharf
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Wei Zheng
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Matthew D Ginzel
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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Influences of Exposure Time and Mortality Assessment Interval on Bioassay Results of Insecticide-Resistant Tropical Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11090640. [PMID: 32961843 PMCID: PMC7565302 DOI: 10.3390/insects11090640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Bed bugs cause health and economic impacts due to their hematophagous behavior. The tropical bed bug, Cimex hemipterus (F.) is predominant in tropical and subtropical regions and modern strains demonstrate high levels of insecticide resistance making them a major challenge to control. In this present study, we investigated the effect of exposure time and mortality assessment interval on bioassay results. Bed bugs were treated separately with six insecticide products at label rates using the surface contact method, with multiple exposure times (5 min, 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, 4 h, and continuous exposure for 96 h or 14 days for Phantom). Post-treatment mortalities of bed bugs were assessed daily for up to 4 days (Tandem, Temprid SC, Pesguard FG161, Sumithrin, and Sumithion) and 14 days for Phantom. Results showed that longer exposure times led to rapid knockdown and better killing effect in bed bugs. Exposure times and mortality assessment intervals should be carefully considered in resistance and efficacy studies with insecticide products. Abstract We evaluated the influences of insecticide exposure time and mortality assessment intervals on the bioassay results of three insecticide-resistant tropical bed bug Cimex hemipterus (F.) populations (Madam Mo, Tanjong Tokong, and Green Lane). This was achieved using the surface contact method and tested with six commercial insecticide products: Tandem, Temprid SC, Pesguard FG161, Sumithrin, Sumithion, and Phantom applied at label rate on glass petri dishes. Six exposure times (5 min, 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, 4 h, and continuous exposure for 4 or 14 days for Phantom) were tested. A susceptible common bed bug Cimex lectularius L. strain (Monheim) was used as the reference strain as no susceptible C. hemipterus strain exists. In treatment with Temprid SC, the Tanjong Tokong strain showed significantly higher KT50 values at 5, 10, and 30 min exposures than 1 h, 4 h, and continuous exposures. When all resistant populations were evaluated at continuous exposure to Sumithion, they demonstrated moderate resistance levels (RR50 ranged from 6.0 to 7.9), while KT50 and KT95 of other shorter exposure times failed to be generated due to low knockdown rate. Higher mortalities were observed in Tanjong Tokong and Green Lane strains when tested at longer exposure times with Temprid SC, Pesguard FG161, Sumithrin, Sumithion, and Phantom. Better killing effect was observed in the treatment with Temprid SC (Tanjong Tokong and Green Lane strains), Pesguard FG161 (Tanjong Tokong and Green Lane strains), Sumithrin (all C. hemipterus strains), Sumithion (all C. hemipterus strains), and Phantom (all strains tested) at longer mortality assessment intervals. We demonstrated that insecticide exposure time and mortality assessment interval could potentially affect outcomes of product performance evaluations, resulting in underestimation or overestimation of insecticide resistance levels in field populations.
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Feston J, Gaire S, Fardisi M, Mason LJ, Gondhalekar AD. Determining baseline toxicity of ozone against an insecticide-susceptible strain of the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. under laboratory conditions. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2020; 76:3108-3116. [PMID: 32302460 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ozone gas is commercially used for deodorization and microbial control. Its efficacy against stored product insect pests is well documented. In the midst of the common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) outbreak, claims were made that ozone gas was effective for their control. This study was conducted to determine baseline ozone concentrations and exposure times required for the control of an insecticide-susceptible C. lectularius strain under laboratory conditions. Dichlorvos (DDVP), an organophosphate class fumigant insecticide was used as a positive control. RESULTS Nymphs and adults were more susceptible to ozone than eggs. Complete (100%) nymph and adult mortality was achieved at an ozone concentration (C) of 1500 ppm and exposure time (T) of 180 min, or concentration × time product (CT) of 270 000 ppm-min, whereas eggs required an eightfold higher CT (2 040 000 ppm-min). DDVP vapor was 2070-, 2542- and 450-fold more potent than ozone, against nymphs, adults and eggs, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Baseline ozone toxicity data provide insights on the practicality of using this gas for the management of common bed bugs. High ozone CT products required for C. lectularius control, particularly eggs, suggest that its use for treating infested human dwellings is not feasible due to logistic, safety and monetary concerns. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Feston
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Insects Limited, Inc., Westfield, IN, USA
| | - Sudip Gaire
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Mahsa Fardisi
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Linda J Mason
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Gaire S, Scharf ME, Gondhalekar AD. Synergistic Toxicity Interactions between Plant Essential Oil Components Against the Common Bed Bug ( Cimex lectularius L.). INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11020133. [PMID: 32092969 PMCID: PMC7074276 DOI: 10.3390/insects11020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Management of the common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) necessitates the use of multiple control techniques. In addition to synthetic pesticides and mechanical interventions, plant-derived essential oils represent one of the control options. Mixtures of two or more essential oil components (monoterpenoids) exhibit synergistic toxicity effects against insects due to increased cuticular penetration. Monoterpenoids, such as carvacrol, eugenol and thymol, are neurologically active and inhibit the nerve firing activity of C. lectularius. However, the effects of mixtures of these monoterpenoids on their toxicity and neuroinhibitory potential against C. lectularius are not known. In this study, the toxicity levels of a tertiary mixture of carvacrol, eugenol and thymol (1:1:1 ratio) and a binary mixture of synthetic insecticides, bifenthrin and imidacloprid (1:1 ratio) were evaluated against C. lectularius through topical bioassays and electrophysiology experiments. Both a mixture of monoterpenoids and the mixture of synthetic insecticides exhibited synergistic effects in topical bioassays. In electrophysiology experiments, the monoterpenoid mixture led to greater neuroinhibitory effects, whereas a mixture of synthetic insecticides caused higher neuroexcitatory effects in comparison to single compounds. This study shows evidence for neurological mechanisms of synergistic interactions between monoterpenoids and provides information regarding the utilization of natural compound mixtures for C. lectularius management.
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Leong XY, Kim DY, Dang K, Singham GV, Doggett SL, Lee CY. Performance of Commercial Insecticide Formulations Against Different Developmental Stages of Insecticide-Resistant Tropical Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 113:353-366. [PMID: 31586445 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toz266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the presence of insecticide resistance in different developmental stages (adults, first instars, and eggs) of the tropical bed bug, Cimex hemipterus (F.) using several insecticide formulations. Adults and first instars of five strains (Queensland, Kuala Lumpur, Bukit Mertajam, Saujana, and Krystal Point) were evaluated using the surface contact method and compared with a susceptible strain (Monheim) of the common bed bug Cimex lectularius L. The insecticide formulations were used at their label rates in this study: Tandem (thiamethoxam [11.6%], lambda-cyhalothrin [3.5%]) at 183.96 mg/m2; Temprid SC (imidacloprid [21%], beta-cyfluthrin [10.5%]) at 106.13 mg/m2; Sumithion 20CS (fenitrothion [20%]) at 250 mg/m2; Pesguard FG161 (d-tetramethrin [4.4%], cyphenothrin [13.2%]) at 110 mg/m2; and Sumithrin 10SEC (d-phenothrin [10%]) at 100 mg/m2. Results showed a very high level of resistance to Pesguard FG161 (388.3 to >605.0 times) and Sumithrin (302.9 to >365.5 times) in all adults of the strains tested, whereas low to high levels of resistance were registered for Tandem (1.4-4.7 times), Temprid (7.3-16.7 times), and Sumithion (1.2-14.6 times) for adults of all bed bug strains. For first instars, resistance to the former two formulations were high to very high (31.4-118.1 times). In contrast, they showed lower resistance to Tandem, Temprid, and Sumithion (1.0-10.2 times). An immersion method used to test on bed bug eggs found high to very high resistance toward all tested formulations. Results demonstrate that the resistance level varies between bed bug developmental stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yeng Leong
- Urban Entomology Laboratory, Vector Control Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Dae-Yun Kim
- Urban Entomology Laboratory, Vector Control Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Kai Dang
- Ecolab Australia, Macquarie Park, NSW, Australia
| | - G Veera Singham
- Centre for Chemical Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Stephen L Doggett
- Department of Medical Entomology, Pathology West - ICPMR, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Chow-Yang Lee
- Urban Entomology Laboratory, Vector Control Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
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Toxicity and neurophysiological impacts of plant essential oil components on bed bugs (Cimicidae: Hemiptera). Sci Rep 2019; 9:3961. [PMID: 30850655 PMCID: PMC6408565 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40275-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) are globally important human parasites. Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches, which include the use of essential oil-based insecticidal compounds, have been proposed for their control. This study aimed to define insecticidal activity and neurophysiological impacts of plant essential oil constituents. The topical and fumigant toxicity of 15 compounds was evaluated against adult male bed bugs. Neurological effects of the 6 most toxicologically active compounds were also determined. In both topical and fumigant bioassays, carvacrol and thymol were the most active compounds. The potency of bifenthrin (a pyrethroid insecticide) in topical bioassays was 72,000 times higher than carvacrol, while vapors of dichlorvos (an organophosphate insecticide) were 445 times more potent than thymol. Spontaneous electrical activity measurements of the bed bug nervous system demonstrated neuroinhibitory effects of carvacrol, thymol and eugenol, whereas linalool produced an excitatory effect. Although citronellic acid and (±)-camphor increased baseline activity of the nervous system their effects were not statistically significant. Bifenthrin also caused neuroexcitation, which is consistent with its known mode of action. These comparative toxicity and neurological impact findings provide new information for formulating effective essential oil-based insecticides for bed bug IPM and conducting mode-of-action studies on individual essential oil components.
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Ashbrook AR, Scharf ME, Bennett GW, Gondhalekar AD. Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) exhibit limited ability to develop heat resistance. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211677. [PMID: 30731005 PMCID: PMC6366730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The global population growth of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius (L.), is attributed to their cryptic behavior, diverse insecticide resistance mechanisms, and lack of public awareness. Bed bug control can be challenging and typically requires chemical and non-chemical treatments. One common non-chemical method for bed bug management is thermal remediation. However, in certain instances, bed bugs are known to survive heat treatments. Bed bugs may be present after a heat treatment due to (i) abiotic factors associated with the inability to achieve lethal temperatures in harborage areas for a sufficient time period, (ii) re-infestation from insects that escaped to cooler areas during a heat treatment or (iii) development of physiological resistance that allows them to survive heat exposure. Previous research has investigated the optimal temperature and exposure time required for either achieving complete mortality or sublethally affecting their growth and development. However, no research has examined bed bug populations for their ability to develop resistance to heat exposure and variation in thermo-tolerance between different bed bug strains. The goals of this study were: i) to determine if bed bugs could be selected for heat resistance under a laboratory selection regime, and ii) to determine if bed bug populations with various heat exposure histories, insecticide resistance profiles, and geographic origins have differential temperature tolerances using two heat exposure techniques (step-function and ramp-function). Selection experiments found an initial increase in bed bug survivorship; however, survivorship did not increase past the fourth generation. Sublethal exposure to heat significantly reduced bed bug feeding and, in some cases, inhibited development. The step-function exposure technique revealed non-significant variation in heat tolerance between populations and the ramp-function exposure technique provided similar results. Based on these study outcomes, the ability of bed bugs to develop heat resistance appears to be limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron R. Ashbrook
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Michael E. Scharf
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Gary W. Bennett
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Ameya D. Gondhalekar
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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