Influence of Pyrethroid Resistance on Vector Competency for Zika Virus by Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Exploring Natural Alkaloids from Brazilian Biodiversity as Potential Inhibitors of the Aedes aegypti Juvenile Hormone Enzyme: A Computational Approach for Vector Mosquito Control

This study explores the potential inhibitory activity of alkaloids, a class of natural compounds isolated from Brazilian biodiversity, against the mJHBP enzyme of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. This mosquito is a significant vector of diseases such as dengue, zika, and chikungunya. The interactions between the ligands and the enzyme at the molecular level were evaluated using computational techniques such as molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD), and molecular mechanics with generalized Born surface area (MMGBSA) free energy calculation. The findings suggest that these compounds exhibit a high binding affinity with the enzyme, as confirmed by the binding free energies obtained in the simulation. Furthermore, the specific enzyme residues that contribute the most to the stability of the complex with the compounds were identified: specifically, Tyr33, Trp53, Tyr64, and Tyr129. Notably, Tyr129 residues were previously identified as crucial in the enzyme inhibition process. This observation underscores the significance of the research findings and the potential of the evaluated compounds as natural insecticides against Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. These results could stimulate the development of new vector control agents that are more efficient and environmentally friendly.

Knockdown resistance allele L1014F introduced by CRISPR/Cas9 is not associated with altered vector competence of Anopheles gambiae for o'nyong nyong virus

Knockdown resistance (kdr) alleles conferring resistance to pyrethroid insecticides are widespread amongst vector populations. Previous research has suggested that these alleles are associated with changes in the vector competence of mosquitoes for arboviruses and Plasmodium, however non-target genetic differences between mosquito strains may have had a confounding effect. Here, to minimise genetic differences, the laboratory Anopheles gambiae Kisumu strain was compared to a CRISPR/Cas9 homozygous kdr L1014F mutant Kisumu-kdr line in order to examine associations with vector competence for o'nyong nyong virus (ONNV). Mosquitoes were infected using either blood feeds or intrathoracic microinjections. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of virus in mosquito body parts between kdr mutant and wildtype lines from either oral or intrathoracic injection routes. The ONNV titre was significantly higher in the legs of the wildtype strain at 7dpi following intrathoracic microinjection, but no other significant differences in viral titre were detected. ONNV was not detected in the saliva of mosquitoes from either strain. Our findings from per os infections suggest that the kdr L1014F allele is not associated with altered infection prevalence for ONNV, a key component of vector competence.

The buzz in the field: the interaction between viruses, mosquitoes, and metabolism

Among many medically important pathogens, arboviruses like dengue, Zika and chikungunya cause severe health and economic burdens especially in developing countries. These viruses are primarily vectored by mosquitoes. Having surmounted geographical barriers and threat of control strategies, these vectors continue to conquer many areas of the globe exposing more than half of the world's population to these viruses. Unfortunately, no medical interventions have been capable so far to produce successful vaccines or antivirals against many of these viruses. Thus, vector control remains the fundamental strategy to prevent disease transmission. The long-established understanding regarding the replication of these viruses is that they reshape both human and mosquito host cellular membranes upon infection for their replicative benefit. This leads to or is a result of significant alterations in lipid metabolism. Metabolism involves complex chemical reactions in the body that are essential for general physiological functions and survival of an organism. Finely tuned metabolic homeostases are maintained in healthy organisms. However, a simple stimulus like a viral infection can alter this homeostatic landscape driving considerable phenotypic change. Better comprehension of these mechanisms can serve as innovative control strategies against these vectors and viruses. Here, we review the metabolic basis of fundamental mosquito biology and virus-vector interactions. The cited work provides compelling evidence that targeting metabolism can be a paradigm shift and provide potent tools for vector control as well as tools to answer many unresolved questions and gaps in the field of arbovirology.

Vertical Transmission of Zika Virus by Florida Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus

The Zika virus pandemic of 2015, with mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus as the putative vectors, prompted public health concerns and the need to improve our understanding of both the horizontal and vertical transmission of Zika virus. Local transmission is especially concerning for Florida, where these two mosquito species are abundant and widespread throughout much of the year. Here, we evaluate the relative vertical transmission and filial infection rate of progeny of Florida Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus following ingestion of infected blood by parental mosquitoes at either 6 or 7 log₁₀ plaque forming units/mL of Zika virus. Florida Ae. aegypti exhibited higher rates of disseminated infection than Ae. albopictus, consistent with other studies indicating greater permissibility of Zika virus in Ae. aegypti. We observed low vertical transmission in both Ae. aegypti (1.1-3.2%) and Ae. albopictus (0-0.3%) mosquitoes, despite imbibing infected blood at titers that yielded high susceptibility to infection and modest horizontal transmission rates. Filial infection rates, testing individual mosquitoes for Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, were 6-10% and 0-6.4%, respectively. Both these invasive Stegomyia mosquitoes were capable of vertically transmitting Zika virus under laboratory conditions, and approximately 5% of female progeny of Ae. aegypti were capable of transmitting Zika virus upon first bite.

Interactions between vector competence to chikungunya virus and resistance to deltamethrin in Aedes aegypti laboratory lines?

The urban mosquito species Aedes aegypti is the main vector of arboviruses worldwide. Mosquito control with insecticides is the most prevalent method for preventing transmission in the absence of effective vaccines and available treatments; however, the extensive use of insecticides has led to the development of resistance in mosquito populations throughout the world, and the number of epidemics caused by arboviruses has increased. Three mosquito lines with different resistance profiles to deltamethrin were isolated in French Guiana, including one with the I1016 knock-down resistant allele. Significant differences were observed in the cumulative proportion of mosquitoes with a disseminated chikungunya virus infection over time across these lines. In addition, some genes related to resistance (CYP6BB2, CYP6N12, GST2, trypsin) were variably overexpressed in the midgut at 7 days after an infectious bloodmeal in these three lines. Our work shows that vector competence for chikungunya virus varied between Ae. aegypti laboratory lines with different deltamethrin resistance profiles. More accurate verification of the functional association between insecticide resistance and vector competence remains to be demonstrated.

First Report of Mutations Associated With Pyrethroid (L1014F) and Organophosphate (G119S) Resistance in Belgian Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquitoes

The emergence of West Nile virus and Usutu virus in Europe poses a significant risk to public health. In the absence of efficient antiviral therapy or vaccine candidates, the only strategy to control these arboviruses is to target the Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquito vector. However, the selection pressure caused by exposure to insecticides for vector control or agricultural pest control can lead to insecticide resistance, thereby reducing the efficacy of insecticide-based vector control interventions. In Culex mosquitoes, two of the most common amino acid substitutions associated with insecticide resistance are the kdr L1014F in voltage gated sodium channels and G119S in acetylcholinesterase. In this study, Culex pipiens biotype pipiens, Culex torrentium, and Culex modestus were sampled from 2019 to 2021 in three distinct environmental habitats (urban, peri-urban, and agricultural) in and around the city of Leuven, Belgium. Individual mosquitoes were screened for two mutations resulting in L1014F and G119S amino acid substitutions. Both mutations were observed in Cx. pipiens and Cx. modestus but not in Cx. torrentium mosquitoes across the four collection sites. Furthermore, multi-resistance or cross-resistance in Cx. pipiens could be a threat in these areas, as both mutations were observed at low frequencies. These results provide the first report of kdr L1014F and ace-1 G119S resistance mutations in Cx. pipiens and Cx. modestus mosquitoes from Belgium, highlighting the importance of mosquito surveillance to design effective arbovirus outbreak control strategies.

Brazilian Populations of Aedes aegypti Resistant to Pyriproxyfen Exhibit Lower Susceptibility to Infection with Zika Virus

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection has caused devastating consequences in Brazil as infections were associated with neurological complications in neonates. Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of ZIKV, and the evolution of insecticide resistance (IR) in this species can compromise control efforts. Although relative levels of phenotypic IR in mosquitoes can change considerably over time, its influence on vector competence for arboviruses is unclear. Pyriproxyfen (PPF)-resistant populations of Ae. aegypti were collected from five municipalities located in Northeast of Brazil, which demonstrated different resistance levels; low (Serrinha, Brumado), moderate (Juazeiro do Norte, Itabuna), and high (Quixadá). Experimental per os infection using ZIKV were performed with individuals from these populations and with an insecticide susceptible strain (Rockefeller) to determine their relative vector competence for ZIKV. Although all populations were competent to transmit ZIKV, mosquitoes derived from populations with moderate to high levels of IR exhibited similar or lower susceptibility to ZIKV infection than those from populations with low IR or the susceptible strain. These observations suggest an association between IR and arbovirus infection, which may be attributable to genetic hitchhiking. The use of PPF to control Brazilian Ae. aegypti may be associated with an indirect benefit of reduced susceptibility to infection, but no changes in disseminated infection and transmission of ZIKV among PPF-resistant phenotypes.

Assessing the Impact of Insecticide Resistance on Vector Competence: A Review

Simple Summary

Insects transmit a wide variety of pathogens, including parasites, bacteria, and viruses, to human and economically important crops. Since pathogen transmission threatens public health and economic activities, insecticides are the main strategy to control insect populations. The continued use of insecticides has led to resistant populations where chemicals are no longer effective. It is unknown if insecticide resistance (IR) could impact insects’ other characteristics, such as their ability to infect, maintain infection, or transmit pathogens, a trait known as vector competence (VC). In this review, we analyze the literature that involves the study of VC and IR or insecticide exposure in three main approaches; studies conducted in the field versus laboratory-designed experiments, the impact of insecticide exposure on pathogen transmission, and studies performed on vectors of crop pathogens. The evidence points out three different patterns where enhancement, impairment, or neutral effects are seen between IR and VC. It is of great concern that IR could enhance VC since it increases the risk of epidemics. More detailed and standardized studies are needed to confirm this relationship. Finally, results from this investigation could help create evidence-based vector control programs.

Abstract

The primary strategy to avoid adverse impacts from insect-mediated pathogen transmission is the chemical control of vector populations through insecticides; its continued use has led to insecticide resistance and unknown consequences on vector competence. This review aims to systematically analyze and synthesize the research on the influence of insecticide resistance (IR) on vector competence (VC). Thirty studies met the inclusion criteria. Twenty studies, conducted either in laboratory or field settings, described the influence of phenotypic insecticide resistance and mechanisms on VC in vectors of human pathogens. Seven studies showed the effect of exposure to insecticides on VC in vectors of human pathogens. Three studies reported the influence of phenotypic resistance and mechanisms on VC in crop pests. The evidence shows that IR could enhance, impair, or have no direct effect on VC in either field or laboratory-designed studies. Similar positive and negative trends are found in pest vectors in crops and studies of insecticide exposure and VC. Even though there is evidence that exposure to insecticides and IR can enhance VC, thus increasing the risk of pathogen transmission, more investigations are needed to confirm the observed patterns and what implications these factors could have in vector control programs.

Geographic Partitioning of Dengue Virus Transmission Risk in Florida

Dengue viruses (DENVs) cause the greatest public health burden globally among the arthropod-borne viruses. DENV transmission risk has also expanded from tropical to subtropical regions due to the increasing range of its principal mosquito vector, Aedes aegypti. Focal outbreaks of dengue fever (dengue) in the state of Florida (FL) in the USA have increased since 2009. However, little is known about the competence of Ae. aegypti populations across different regions of FL to transmit DENVs. To understand the effects of DENV genotype and serotype variations on vector susceptibility and transmission potential in FL, we orally infected a colony of Ae. aegypti (Orlando/ORL) with low passage or laboratory DENV-1 through -4. Low passage DENVs were more infectious to and had higher transmission potential by ORL mosquitoes. We used these same DENVs to examine natural Ae. aegypti populations to determine whether spatial distributions correlated with differential vector competence. Vector competence across all DENV serotypes was greater for mosquitoes from areas with the highest dengue incidence in south FL compared to north FL. Vector competence for low passage DENVs was significantly higher, revealing that transmission risk is influenced by virus/vector combinations. These data support a targeted mosquito-plus-pathogen screening approach to more accurately estimate DENV transmission risk.

Juvenile hormone analog enhances Zika virus infection in Aedes aegypti

In recent years, there has been a rise in the emergence of arboviruses of public health importance, including Zika, chikungunya, dengue, and yellow fever viruses. Insecticide-based mosquito control has been the primary method for mitigating transmission of arboviruses. The consequences for the application of insecticides include both lethal and sublethal effects, and associated development of insecticide resistance. However, little is known about the influence on arboviral transmission. Mosquitoes with phenotypes that exhibit insecticide resistance or experience sublethal effects may be associated with altered susceptibility to arbovirus infection and transmission. Juvenile hormone analogs (JHAs) are insecticides that prevent pupa to adult molting of mosquitoes by mimicking the action of their natural juvenile hormone. Here, we examined whether the JHA pyriproxyfen interacts with ambient temperature (20 °C and 30 °C) during juvenile stages to influence life-history traits, population growth (λ'), and Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in Aedes aegypti. Development time of females was lengthened at 20 °C and in the presence of JHA. Prevention of pupa to adult molting by JHA was differentially higher at elevated temperature than low temperature. Size of females was larger at 20 °C and smaller at 30 °C. Infection, disseminated infection, and transmission of ZIKV in females were enhanced by JHA at both 20 °C and 30 °C relative to the controls. These results demonstrate that mosquito life-history and vector competence parameters are strongly influenced by interactive effects of JHA and temperature. The JHA-induced enhancement of ZIKV infection in females should be a consideration when implementing JHA in vector control strategies.