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Ofoe R, Thomas RH, Asiedu SK, Wang-Pruski G, Fofana B, Abbey L. Aluminum in plant: Benefits, toxicity and tolerance mechanisms. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1085998. [PMID: 36714730 PMCID: PMC9880555 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1085998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is the third most ubiquitous metal in the earth's crust. A decrease in soil pH below 5 increases its solubility and availability. However, its impact on plants depends largely on concentration, exposure time, plant species, developmental age, and growing conditions. Although Al can be beneficial to plants by stimulating growth and mitigating biotic and abiotic stresses, it remains unknown how Al mediates these effects since its biological significance in cellular systems is still unidentified. Al is considered a major limiting factor restricting plant growth and productivity in acidic soils. It instigates a series of phytotoxic symptoms in several Al-sensitive crops with inhibition of root growth and restriction of water and nutrient uptake as the obvious symptoms. This review explores advances in Al benefits, toxicity and tolerance mechanisms employed by plants on acidic soils. These insights will provide directions and future prospects for potential crop improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Ofoe
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
| | - Raymond H. Thomas
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Grenfell Campus, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Samuel K. Asiedu
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
| | - Gefu Wang-Pruski
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
| | - Bourlaye Fofana
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
- Charlottetown Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
| | - Lord Abbey
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
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Khodaeiaminjan M, Knoch D, Ndella Thiaw MR, Marchetti CF, Kořínková N, Techer A, Nguyen TD, Chu J, Bertholomey V, Doridant I, Gantet P, Graner A, Neumann K, Bergougnoux V. Genome-wide association study in two-row spring barley landraces identifies QTL associated with plantlets root system architecture traits in well-watered and osmotic stress conditions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1125672. [PMID: 37077626 PMCID: PMC10106628 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1125672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Water availability is undoubtedly one of the most important environmental factors affecting crop production. Drought causes a gradual deprivation of water in the soil from top to deep layers and can occur at diverse stages of plant development. Roots are the first organs that perceive water deficit in soil and their adaptive development contributes to drought adaptation. Domestication has contributed to a bottleneck in genetic diversity. Wild species or landraces represent a pool of genetic diversity that has not been exploited yet in breeding program. In this study, we used a collection of 230 two-row spring barley landraces to detect phenotypic variation in root system plasticity in response to drought and to identify new quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in root system architecture under diverse growth conditions. For this purpose, young seedlings grown for 21 days in pouches under control and osmotic-stress conditions were phenotyped and genotyped using the barley 50k iSelect SNP array, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were conducted using three different GWAS methods (MLM GAPIT, FarmCPU, and BLINK) to detect genotype/phenotype associations. In total, 276 significant marker-trait associations (MTAs; p-value (FDR)< 0.05) were identified for root (14 and 12 traits under osmotic-stress and control conditions, respectively) and for three shoot traits under both conditions. In total, 52 QTL (multi-trait or identified by at least two different GWAS approaches) were investigated to identify genes representing promising candidates with a role in root development and adaptation to drought stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mortaza Khodaeiaminjan
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
- *Correspondence: Mortaza Khodaeiaminjan, ; Véronique Bergougnoux,
| | - Dominic Knoch
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | | | - Cintia F. Marchetti
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Nikola Kořínková
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Alexie Techer
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Thu D. Nguyen
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Jianting Chu
- Department of Breeding Research, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Valentin Bertholomey
- Limagrain Field Seeds, Traits and Technologies, Groupe Limagrain Centre de Recherche, Chappes, France
| | - Ingrid Doridant
- Limagrain Field Seeds, Traits and Technologies, Groupe Limagrain Centre de Recherche, Chappes, France
| | - Pascal Gantet
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
- Unité Mixte de Recherche DIADE, Université de Montpellier, IRD, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | - Andreas Graner
- Department Genebank, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Kerstin Neumann
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Véronique Bergougnoux
- Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Olomouc, Czechia
- *Correspondence: Mortaza Khodaeiaminjan, ; Véronique Bergougnoux,
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Martins TF, Souza PFN, Alves MS, Silva FDA, Arantes MR, Vasconcelos IM, Oliveira JTA. Identification, characterization, and expression analysis of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) miRNAs in response to cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV) challenge. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2020; 39:1061-1078. [PMID: 32388590 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-020-02548-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cowpea miRNAs and Argonaute genes showed differential expression patterns in response to CPSMV challenge Several biotic stresses affect cowpea production and yield. CPSMV stands out for causing severe negative impacts on cowpea. Plants have two main induced immune systems. In the basal system (PTI, PAMP-triggered immunity), plants recognize and respond to conserved molecular patterns associated with pathogens (PAMPs). The second type (ETI, Effector-triggered immunity) is induced after plant recognition of specific factors from pathogens. RNA silencing is another important defense mechanism in plants. Our research group has been using biochemical and proteomic approaches to learn which proteins and pathways are involved and could explain why some cowpea genotypes are resistant whereas others are susceptible to CPSMV. This current study was conducted to determine the role of cowpea miRNA in the interaction between a resistant cowpea genotype (BRS-Marataoã) and CPSMV. Previously identified and deposited plant microRNA sequences were used to find out all possible microRNAs in the cowpea genome. This search detected 617 mature microRNAs, which were distributed in 89 microRNA families. Next, 4 out of these 617 miRNAs and their possible target genes that encode the proteins Kat-p80, DEAD-Box, GST, and SPB9, all involved in the defense response of cowpea to CPSMV, had their expression compared between cowpea leaves uninoculated and inoculated with CPSMV. Additionally, the differential expression of genes that encode the Argonaute (AGO) proteins 1, 2, 4, 6, and 10 is reported. In summary, the studied miRNAs and AGO 2 and AGO4 associated genes showed differential expression patterns in response to CPSMV challenge, which indicate their role in cowpea defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago F Martins
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Pedro F N Souza
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Murilo S Alves
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Fredy Davi A Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Mariana R Arantes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Ilka M Vasconcelos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Jose T A Oliveira
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil.
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Gardiner J. Posttranslational modification of plant microtubules. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2019; 14:e1654818. [PMID: 31564233 PMCID: PMC6768230 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2019.1654818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Microtubules in eukaryotes have a number of posttranslational modifications catalyzed by an array of enzymes. These modifications alter the properties of the microtubules and the ways in which they interact with partner proteins. In recent years many of the enzymes which modify the microtubules have been identified in animals and protozoans. Relatively little work has been done on their function in plants, however. This study uses bioinformatics to identify homologues of these enzymes in plant species from the green alga Chlamydomonas reiinhardtii to the angiosperm Arabidopsis thaliana. Many are conserved and this gives insight into the likely future direction of this dynamic field.
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Kavas M, Kurt Kızıldoğan A, Balık Hİ. Gene expression analysis of bud burst process in European hazelnut ( Corylus avellana L.) using RNA-Seq. PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 25:13-29. [PMID: 30804627 PMCID: PMC6352538 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-018-0588-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The control of bud burst process depending on temperature is crucial factor in woody perennial plants to survive in unfavorable ecological conditions. Although it has important economic and agronomic values, little information is available on the molecular mechanism of the bud burst process in Corylus avellana. Here for the first time, we conducted a de novo transcriptome-based experiment using eco-dormant leaf bud tissues. Four transcriptome libraries were constructed from the leaf bud tissues and sequenced via Illumina platform. Transcriptome analysis revealed 86,394 unigenes with a mean length of 1189 nt and an N50 of 1916 nt. Among these unigenes, 63,854 (73.78%) of them were annotated by at least one database. De novo assembled transcripts were enriched in phenylpropanoid metabolism, phytohormone biosynthesis and signal transduction pathways. Analyses of phytohormone-associated genes revealed important changes during bud burst, in response to gibberellic acid, auxin, and brassinosteroids. Approximately 2163 putative transcription factors were predicted, of which the largest number of unique transcripts belonged to the MYB transcription factor family. These results contribute to a better understanding of the regulation of bud burst genes in perennial plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Musa Kavas
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Aslıhan Kurt Kızıldoğan
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Hüseyin İrfan Balık
- Giresun Hazelnut Research Station, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Giresun, Turkey
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Chudinova EM, Karpov PA, Fokin AI, Yemets AI, Lytvyn DI, Nadezhdina ES, Blume YB. MAST-like protein kinase IREH1 from Arabidopsis thaliana co-localizes with the centrosome when expressed in animal cells. PLANTA 2017; 246:959-969. [PMID: 28717875 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2742-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The similarity of IREH1 (Incomplete Root Hair Elongation 1) and animal MAST kinases was confirmed; IREH1cDNA was cloned while expressing in cultured animal cells co-localized with the centrosome. In mammals and fruit flies, microtubule-associated serine/threonine-protein kinases (MAST) are strongly involved in the regulation of the microtubule system. Higher plants also possess protein kinases homologous to MASTs, but their function and interaction with the cytoskeleton remain unclear. Here, we confirmed the sequence and structural similarity of MAST-related putative protein kinase IREH1 (At3g17850) and known animal MAST kinases. We report the first cloning of full-length cDNA of the IREH1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. Recombinant GFP-IREH1 protein was expressed in different cultured animal cells. It revealed co-localization with the centrosome without influencing cell morphology and microtubule arrangement. Structural N-terminal region of the IREH1 molecule co-localized with centrosome as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena M Chudinova
- Institute of Protein Research of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Pavel A Karpov
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Artem I Fokin
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alla I Yemets
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Dmytro I Lytvyn
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Elena S Nadezhdina
- Institute of Protein Research of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Yaroslav B Blume
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
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Samofalova DO, Karpov PA, Raevsky AV, Blume YB. Protein phosphatases potentially associated with regulation of microtubules, their spatial structure reconstruction and analysis. Cell Biol Int 2017; 43:1081-1090. [PMID: 28653783 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
According to the sequence and profile comparison with known catalytic domains, where identified protein phosphatases potentially involved in regulation of microtubule dynamics and structure from Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana tabacum, Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa subsp. japonica, Zea mays, and Triticum aestivum. Selected proteins were related to classical non-receptor, serine/threonine-specific and dual protein phosphatases. By application of template structures of human protein phosphatases, it was performed homology modelling of the catalytic domains of 17 plant protein phosphatases. Based on the results of the structural alignment, molecular dynamics, and conservatism in positions of functionally importance, it was confirmed homology of selected plant proteins and known protein phosphatases regulating structure and dynamics of microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariya O Samofalova
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, Natl. Academy of Sci. of Ukraine, Osipovskogo str. 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Pavel A Karpov
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, Natl. Academy of Sci. of Ukraine, Osipovskogo str. 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Alexey V Raevsky
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, Natl. Academy of Sci. of Ukraine, Osipovskogo str. 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Yaroslav B Blume
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, Natl. Academy of Sci. of Ukraine, Osipovskogo str. 2a, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
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Chuetor S, Barakat A, Rouau X, Ruiz T. Analysis of ground rice straw with a hydro-textural approach. POWDER TECHNOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2016.12.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Zhang H, Jiang Z, Qin R, Zhang H, Zou J, Jiang W, Liu D. Accumulation and cellular toxicity of aluminum in seedling of Pinus massoniana. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 14:264. [PMID: 25267390 PMCID: PMC4189629 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-014-0264-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Masson pine (Pinus massoniana) is one of the most important timber species with adaptable, fast growing, versatile advantages in southern China. Despite considerable research efforts, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of A1 toxicity and resistance in P. massoniana are still poorly understood. The effects of Al on uptake and translocation of Al and other minerals, cell division and nucleolus in P. massoniana were investigated. RESULTS The results indicated that Al accumulated mainly in the roots, and small amounts were transported to aboveground organs. In the presence of Al, the contents of Mg and Fe in stems increased and decreased in roots. Accumulation of Mn in the organs was inhibited significantly. Evidence from cellular experiments showed that Al had an inhibitory effect on the root growth at all concentrations (10⁻⁵ - 10⁻² M) used. Chromosome fragments, chromosome bridges, C-mitosis and chromosome stickiness were induced during mitosis in the root tip cells. Al induced the formation of abnormal microtubule (MT) arrays, consisting of discontinuous wavy MTs or short MT fragments at the cell periphery. MT organization and function of the mitotic spindle and phragmoplast were severely disturbed. The nucleolus did not disaggregate normally and still remained its characteristic structure during metaphase. Nucleolar particles containing argyrophilic proteins were accumulated and leached out from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Evidence confirmed that these proteins contained nucleophosmin (B23), nucleolin (C23) and fibrillarin. Western immunoblot analysis revealed that the contents of three nucleolar proteins increased significantly. CONCLUSION Based on the information provided in this article, it is concluded that root tips of plants are the most sensitive organ to environmental stresses and the accumulation of Al ions primarily is in roots of P. massoniana, and small amounts of Al are transported to aboveground. Root apical meristems play a key role in the immediate reaction to stress factors by activating signal cascades to the other plant organs. Al induces a series of the cellular toxic changes concerning with cell division and nucleolus. The data presented above can be also used as valuable and early markers in cellular changes induced by metals for the evaluation of metal contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanhuan Zhang
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
| | - Ze Jiang
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
| | - Rong Qin
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
- />School of Life Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangzhou 510631 PR China
| | - Huaning Zhang
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
| | - Jinhua Zou
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
| | - Wusheng Jiang
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
| | - Donghua Liu
- />Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387 PR China
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Gardiner J. Fractals and the irreducibility of consciousness in plants and animals. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2013; 8:25296. [PMID: 23759545 PMCID: PMC4005797 DOI: 10.4161/psb.25296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In both plants and animals consciousness is fractal. Since fractals can only pass information in one direction it is impossible to extrapolate backward to find the rule that governs the fractal. Thus, similarly, it will be impossible to completely determine the rule or rules that govern consciousness.
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Gardiner J. The evolution and diversification of plant microtubule-associated proteins. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 75:219-29. [PMID: 23551562 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant evolution is marked by major advances in structural characteristics that facilitated the highly successful colonization of dry land. Underlying these advances is the evolution of genes encoding specialized proteins that form novel microtubular arrays of the cytoskeleton. This review investigates the evolution of plant families of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) through the recently sequenced genomes of Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, Selaginella moellendorffii, Physcomitrella patens, Volvox carteri and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The families of MAPs examined are AIR9, CLASP, CRIPT, MAP18, MOR1, TON, EB1, AtMAP70, SPR2, SPR1, WVD2 and MAP65 families (abbreviations are defined in the footnote to Table 1). Conjectures are made regarding the evolution of MAPs in plants in relation to the evolution of multicellularity, oriented cell division and vasculature. Angiosperms in particular have high numbers of proteins that are involved in promotion of helical growth or its suppression, and novel plant microtubular structures may have acted as a catalyst for the development of novel plant MAPs. Comparisons of plant MAP gene families with those of animals show that animals may have more flexibility in the structure of their microtubule cytoskeletons than plants, but with both plants and animals possessing many MAP splice variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Gardiner
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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