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Wu RY, Wu CQ, Xie F, Xing X, Xu L. Building RNA-Mediated Artificial Signaling Pathways between Endogenous Genes. Acc Chem Res 2024. [PMID: 38872074 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.4c00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
ConspectusSophisticated genetic networks play a pivotal role in orchestrating cellular responses through intricate signaling pathways across diverse environmental conditions. Beyond the inherent complexity of natural cellular signaling networks, the construction of artificial signaling pathways (ASPs) introduces a vast array of possibilities for reshaping cellular responses, enabling programmable control of living organisms. ASPs can be integrated with existing cellular networks and redirect output responses as desired, allowing seamless communication and coordination with other cellular processes, thereby achieving designable transduction within cells. Among diversified ASPs, establishing connections between originally independent endogenous genes is of particular significance in modifying the genetic networks, so that cells can be endowed with new capabilities to sense and deal with abnormal factors related to differentiated gene expression (i.e., solve the issues of the aberrant gene expression induced by either external or internal stimuli). In a typical scenario, the two genes X and Y in the cell are originally expressed independently. After the introduction of an ASP, changes in the expression of gene X may exert a designed impact on gene Y, subsequently inducing the cellular response related to gene Y. If X represents a disease signal and Y serves as a therapeutic module, the introduction of the ASP empowers cells with a new spontaneous defense system to handle potential risks, which holds great potential for both fundamental and translational studies.In this Account, we primarily review our endeavors in the construction of RNA-mediated ASPs between endogenous genes that can respond to differentiated RNA expression. In contrast to other molecules that may be restricted to specific pathways, synthetic RNA circuits can be easily utilized and expanded as a general platform for constructing ASPs with a high degree of programmability and tunability for diversified functionalities through predictable Watson-Crick base pairing. We first provide an overview of recent advancements in RNA-based genetic circuits, encompassing but not limited to utilization of RNA toehold switches, siRNA and CRISPR systems. Despite notable progress, most reported RNA circuits have to contain at least one exogenous RNA X as input or one engineered RNA Y as a target, which is not suitable for establishing endogenous gene connections. While exogenous RNAs can be engineered and controlled as desired, constructing a general and efficient platform for manipulation of naturally occurring RNAs poses a formidable challenge, especially for the mammalian system. With a focus on this goal, we are devoted to developing efficient strategies to manipulate cell responses by establishing RNA-mediated ASPs between endogenous genes, particularly in mammalian cells. Our step-by-step progress in engineering customized cell signaling circuits, from bacterial cells to mammalian cells, from gene expression regulation to phenotype control, and from small RNA to long mRNA of low abundance and more complex secondary structures, is systematically described. Finally, future perspectives and potential applications of these RNA-mediated ASPs between endogenous genes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Yue Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Chao-Qun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Fan Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiwen Xing
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
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2
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Jiang G, Gao Y, Zhou N, Wang B. CRISPR-powered RNA sensing in vivo. Trends Biotechnol 2024:S0167-7799(24)00094-5. [PMID: 38734565 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2024.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
RNA sensing in vivo evaluates past or ongoing endogenous RNA disturbances, which is crucial for identifying cell types and states and diagnosing diseases. Recently, the CRISPR-driven genetic circuits have offered promising solutions to burgeoning challenges in RNA sensing. This review delves into the cutting-edge developments of CRISPR-powered RNA sensors in vivo, reclassifying these RNA sensors into four categories based on their working mechanisms, including programmable reassembly of split single-guide RNA (sgRNA), RNA-triggered RNA processing and protein cleavage, miRNA-triggered RNA interference (RNAi), and strand displacement reactions. Then, we discuss the advantages and challenges of existing methodologies in diverse application scenarios and anticipate and analyze obstacles and opportunities in forthcoming practical implementations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Jiang
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuanli Gao
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, Zhejiang, China; School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FF, UK
| | - Nan Zhou
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, Zhejiang, China
| | - Baojun Wang
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China; ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, Zhejiang, China.
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3
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Wu CQ, Wu RY, Zhang QL, Wang LL, Wang Y, Dai C, Zhang CX, Xu L. Harnessing Catalytic RNA Circuits for Construction of Artificial Signaling Pathways in Mammalian Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202319309. [PMID: 38298112 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202319309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Engineering of genetic networks with artificial signaling pathways (ASPs) can reprogram cellular responses and phenotypes under different circumstances for a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. However, construction of ASPs between originally independent endogenous genes in mammalian cells is highly challenging. Here we report an amplifiable RNA circuit that can theoretically build regulatory connections between any endogenous genes in mammalian cells. We harness the system of catalytic hairpin assembly with combination of controllable CRISPR-Cas9 function to transduce the signals from distinct messenger RNA expression of trigger genes into manipulation of target genes. Through introduction of these RNA-based genetic circuits, mammalian cells are endowed with autonomous capabilities to sense the changes of RNA expression either induced by ligand stimuli or from various cell types and control the cellular responses and fates via apoptosis-related ASPs. Our design provides a generalized platform for construction of ASPs inside the genetic networks of mammalian cells based on differentiated RNA expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Qun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Ruo-Yue Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Qiu-Long Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Technology, Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Laboratory Medicine of Fujian Province, Putian University, Putian, 351100, China
| | - Liang-Liang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Yang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Chu Dai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Chen-Xi Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
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4
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Eisenhut P, Marx N, Borsi G, Papež M, Ruggeri C, Baumann M, Borth N. Manipulating gene expression levels in mammalian cell factories: An outline of synthetic molecular toolboxes to achieve multiplexed control. N Biotechnol 2024; 79:1-19. [PMID: 38040288 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2023.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells have developed dedicated molecular mechanisms to tightly control expression levels of their genes where the specific transcriptomic signature across all genes eventually determines the cell's phenotype. Modulating cellular phenotypes is of major interest to study their role in disease or to reprogram cells for the manufacturing of recombinant products, such as biopharmaceuticals. Cells of mammalian origin, for example Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and Human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, are most commonly employed to produce therapeutic proteins. Early genetic engineering approaches to alter their phenotype have often been attempted by "uncontrolled" overexpression or knock-down/-out of specific genetic factors. Many studies in the past years, however, highlight that rationally regulating and fine-tuning the strength of overexpression or knock-down to an optimum level, can adjust phenotypic traits with much more precision than such "uncontrolled" approaches. To this end, synthetic biology tools have been generated that enable (fine-)tunable and/or inducible control of gene expression. In this review, we discuss various molecular tools used in mammalian cell lines and group them by their mode of action: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational and post-translational regulation. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using these tools for each cell regulatory layer and with respect to cell line engineering approaches. This review highlights the plethora of synthetic toolboxes that could be employed, alone or in combination, to optimize cellular systems and eventually gain enhanced control over the cellular phenotype to equip mammalian cell factories with the tools required for efficient production of emerging, more difficult-to-express biologics formats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Eisenhut
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicolas Marx
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Giulia Borsi
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maja Papež
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Caterina Ruggeri
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Baumann
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
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5
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Liu Y, Liu W, Wang B. Engineering CRISPR guide RNAs for programmable RNA sensors. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:2061-2070. [PMID: 37955062 PMCID: PMC10754282 DOI: 10.1042/bst20221486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
As the most valuable feature of the CRISPR system, the programmability based on Watson-Crick base pairing has been widely exploited in engineering RNA sensors. The base pairing in these systems offers a connection between the RNA of interest and the CRISPR effector, providing a highly specific mechanism for RNA detection both in vivo and in vitro. In the last decade, despite the many successful RNA sensing approaches developed during the era of CRISPR explosion, a deeper understanding of the characteristics of CRISPR systems and the continuous expansion of the CRISPR family members indicates that the CRISPR-based RNA sensor remains a promising area from which a variety of new functions and applications can be engineered. Here, we present a systematic overview of the various strategies of engineering CRISPR gRNA for programmable RNA detection with an aim to clarify the role of gRNA's programmability among the present limitations and future development of CRISPR-enabled RNA sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB), Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0QH, U.K
| | - Wei Liu
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB), Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0QH, U.K
| | - Baojun Wang
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering & Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Research Center for Biological Computation, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou 311100, China
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6
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Huang Y, Chen M, Hu G, Wu B, He M. Elimination of editing plasmid mediated by theophylline riboswitch in Zymomonas mobilis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 107:7151-7163. [PMID: 37728624 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12783-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Zymomonas mobilis is regarded as a potential chassis for the production of platform chemicals. Genome editing using the CRISPR-Cas system could meet the need for gene modification in metabolic engineering. However, the low curing efficiency of CRISPR editing plasmid is a common bottleneck in Z. mobilis. In this study, we utilized a theophylline-dependent riboswitch to regulate the expression of the replicase gene of the editing plasmid, thereby promoting the elimination of exogeneous plasmid. The riboswitch D (RSD) with rigorous regulatory ability was identified as the optimal candidate by comparing the transformation efficiency of four theophylline riboswitch-based backbone editing plasmids, and the optimal theophylline concentration for inducing RSD was determined to be 2 mM. A highly effective method for eliminating the editing plasmid, cells with RSD-based editing plasmid which were cultured in liquid and solid RM media in alternating passages at 37 °C without shaking, was established by testing the curing efficiency of backbone editing plasmids pMini and pMini-RSD in RM medium with or without theophylline at 30 °C or 37 °C. Finally, the RSD-based editing plasmid was applied to genome editing, resulting in an increase of more than 10% in plasmid elimination efficiency compared to that of pMini-based editing plasmid. KEY POINTS: • An effective strategy for curing CRISPR editing plasmid has been established in Z. mobilis. • Elimination efficiency of the CRISPR editing plasmid was enhanced by 10% to 20% under the regulation of theophylline-dependent riboswitch RSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhuan Huang
- Biomass Energy Technology Research Centre, Key Laboratory of Development and Application of Rural Renewable Energy (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Biogas Institute of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Section 4-13, Renmin Rd. South, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Mao Chen
- Biomass Energy Technology Research Centre, Key Laboratory of Development and Application of Rural Renewable Energy (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Biogas Institute of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Section 4-13, Renmin Rd. South, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Guoquan Hu
- Biomass Energy Technology Research Centre, Key Laboratory of Development and Application of Rural Renewable Energy (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Biogas Institute of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Section 4-13, Renmin Rd. South, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Bo Wu
- Biomass Energy Technology Research Centre, Key Laboratory of Development and Application of Rural Renewable Energy (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Biogas Institute of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Section 4-13, Renmin Rd. South, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Mingxiong He
- Biomass Energy Technology Research Centre, Key Laboratory of Development and Application of Rural Renewable Energy (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), Biogas Institute of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Section 4-13, Renmin Rd. South, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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7
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Wang Y, Liu Y, Wang LL, Zhang QL, Xu L. Integrating Ligands into Nucleic Acid Systems. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300292. [PMID: 37401635 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
Signal transduction from non-nucleic acid ligands (small molecules and proteins) to structural changes of nucleic acids plays a crucial role in both biomedical analysis and cellular regulations. However, how to bridge between these two types of molecules without compromising the expandable complexity and programmability of the nucleic acid nanomachines is a critical challenge. Compared with the previously most widely applied transduction strategies, we review the latest advances of a kinetically controlled approach for ligand-oligonucleotide transduction in this Concept article. This new design works through an intrinsic conformational alteration of the nucleic acid aptamer upon the ligand binding as a governing factor for nucleic acid strand displacement reactions. The functionalities and applications of this transduction system as a ligand converter on biosensing and DNA computation are described and discussed. Furthermore, we propose some potential scenarios for utilization of this ligand transduction design to regulate gene expression through synthetic RNA switches in the cellular contexts. Finally, future perspectives regarding this ligand-oligonucleotide transduction platform are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging National-Regional Key Technology Engineering Laboratory for Medical Ultrasound School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Shenzhen, 518060, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Yan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Liang-Liang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Qiu-Long Zhang
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Technology, Putian University, Putian, 351100, Fujian, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
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8
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Wang WJ, Lin J, Wu CQ, Luo AL, Xing X, Xu L. Establishing artificial gene connections through RNA displacement-assembly-controlled CRISPR/Cas9 function. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:7691-7703. [PMID: 37395400 PMCID: PMC10415155 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Construction of synthetic circuits that can reprogram genetic networks and signal pathways is a long-term goal for manipulation of biosystems. However, it is still highly challenging to build artificial genetic communications among endogenous RNA species due to their sequence independence and structural diversities. Here we report an RNA-based synthetic circuit that can establish regulatory linkages between expression of endogenous genes in both Escherichiacoli and mammalian cells. This design employs a displacement-assembly approach to modulate the activity of guide RNA for function control of CRISPR/Cas9. Our experiments demonstrate the great effectiveness of this RNA circuit for building artificial connections between expression of originally unrelated genes. Both exogenous and naturally occurring RNAs, including small/microRNAs and long mRNAs, are capable of controlling expression of another endogenous gene through this approach. Moreover, an artificial signal pathway inside mammalian cells is also successfully established to control cell apoptosis through our designed synthetic circuit. This study provides a general strategy for constructing synthetic RNA circuits, which can introduce artificial connections into the genetic networks of mammalian cells and alter the cellular phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Jia Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Jiao Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Chao-Qun Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Ai-Ling Luo
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Xiwen Xing
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University Institution, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
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9
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Wang T, Hellmer H, Simmel FC. Genetic switches based on nucleic acid strand displacement. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2023; 79:102867. [PMID: 36535150 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Toehold-mediated strand displacement (TMSD) is an isothermal switching process that enables the sequence-programmable and reversible conversion of DNA or RNA strands between single- and double-stranded conformations or other secondary structures. TMSD processes have already found widespread application in DNA nanotechnology, where they are used to drive DNA-based molecular devices or for the realization of synthetic biochemical computing circuits. Recently, researchers have started to employ TMSD also for the control of RNA-based gene regulatory processes in vivo, in particular in the context of synthetic riboregulators and conditional guide RNAs for CRISPR/Cas. Here, we provide a review over recent developments in this emerging field and discuss the opportunities and challenges for such systems in in vivo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianhe Wang
- Physics of Synthetic Biological Systems - E14, Physics Department and ZNN, Technische Universität München, Am Coulombwall 4a, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Henning Hellmer
- Physics of Synthetic Biological Systems - E14, Physics Department and ZNN, Technische Universität München, Am Coulombwall 4a, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Friedrich C Simmel
- Physics of Synthetic Biological Systems - E14, Physics Department and ZNN, Technische Universität München, Am Coulombwall 4a, 85748 Garching, Germany.
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10
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Hu LF, Li YX, Wang JZ, Zhao YT, Wang Y. Controlling CRISPR-Cas9 by guide RNA engineering. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2023; 14:e1731. [PMID: 35393779 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system is a product of million years of evolution by microbes to fight against invading genetic materials. Around 10 years ago, scientists started to repurpose the CRISPR as genetic tools by molecular engineering approaches. The guide RNA provides a versatile and unique platform for the innovation to improve and expand the application of CRISPR-Cas9 system. In this review, we will first introduce the basic sequence and structure of guide RNA and its role during the function of CRISPR-Cas9. We will then summarize recent progress on the development of various guide RNA engineering strategies. These strategies have been dedicated to improve the performance of CRISPR-Cas9, to achieve precise spatiotemporal control of CRISPR-Cas9, and to broaden the application of CRISPR-Cas9. Finally, we will briefly discuss the uniqueness and advantage of guide RNA-engineering based systems versus those with engineered Cas9 proteins and speculate potential future directions in guide RNA engineering. This article is categorized under: RNA Methods > RNA Analyses In Vitro and In Silico RNA Methods > RNA Nanotechnology Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > Regulatory RNAs RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Feng Hu
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-Xuan Li
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jia-Zhen Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-Ting Zhao
- Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yangming Wang
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
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11
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Pelea O, Fulga TA, Sauka-Spengler T. RNA-Responsive gRNAs for Controlling CRISPR Activity: Current Advances, Future Directions, and Potential Applications. CRISPR J 2022; 5:642-659. [PMID: 36206027 PMCID: PMC9618385 DOI: 10.1089/crispr.2022.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as a major genome manipulation tool. As Cas9 can cause off-target effects, several methods for controlling the expression of CRISPR systems were developed. Recent studies have shown that CRISPR activity could be controlled by sensing expression levels of endogenous transcripts. This is particularly interesting, as endogenous RNAs could harbor important information about the cell type, disease state, and environmental challenges cells are facing. Single-guide RNA (sgRNA) engineering played a major role in the development of RNA-responsive CRISPR systems. Following further optimizations, RNA-responsive sgRNAs could enable the development of novel therapeutic and research applications. This review introduces engineering strategies that could be employed to modify Streptococcus pyogenes sgRNAs with a focus on recent advances made toward the development of RNA-responsive sgRNAs. Future directions and potential applications of these technologies are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana Pelea
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; and Kansas City, Missouri, USA.,Address correspondence to: Oana Pelea, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom,
| | - Tudor A. Fulga
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; and Kansas City, Missouri, USA
| | - Tatjana Sauka-Spengler
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; and Kansas City, Missouri, USA.,Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, USA.,Address correspondence to: Tatjana Sauka-Spengler, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom,
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12
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Engineering Toehold-Mediated Switches for Native RNA Detection and Regulation in Bacteria. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167689. [PMID: 35717997 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
RNA switches are versatile tools in synthetic biology for sensing and regulation applications. The discoveries of RNA-mediated translational and transcriptional control have facilitated the development of complexde novodesigns of RNA switches. Specifically, RNA toehold-mediated switches, in which binding to the toehold sensing domain controls the transition between switch states via strand displacement, have been extensively adapted for coupling systems responses to specifictrans-RNA inputs. This review highlights some of the challenges associated with applying these switches for native RNA detectionin vivo, including transferability between organisms. The applicability and design considerations of toehold-mediated switches are discussed by highlighting twelve recently developed switch designs. This review finishes with future perspectives to address current gaps in the field, particularly regarding the power of structural prediction algorithms for improved in vivo functionality of RNA switches.
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13
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Piskunen P, Latham R, West CE, Castronovo M, Linko V. Integrating CRISPR/Cas systems with programmable DNA nanostructures for delivery and beyond. iScience 2022; 25:104389. [PMID: 35633938 PMCID: PMC9130510 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Precise genome editing with CRISPR/Cas paves the way for many biochemical, biotechnological, and medical applications, and consequently, it may enable treatment of already known and still-to-be-found genetic diseases. Meanwhile, another rapidly emerging field—structural DNA nanotechnology—provides a customizable and modular platform for accurate positioning of nanoscopic materials, for e.g., biomedical uses. This addressability has just recently been applied in conjunction with the newly developed gene engineering tools to enable impactful, programmable nanotechnological applications. As of yet, self-assembled DNA nanostructures have been mainly employed to enhance and direct the delivery of CRISPR/Cas, but lately the groundwork has also been laid out for other intriguing and complex functions. These recent advances will be described in this perspective.
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Lin J, Wang WJ, Wang Y, Liu Y, Xu L. Building Endogenous Gene Connections through RNA Self-Assembly Controlled CRISPR/Cas9 Function. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:19834-19843. [PMID: 34788038 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c09041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Construction of synthetic circuits that can artificially establish endogenous gene connections is essential to introduce new phenotypes for cellular behaviors. Given the diversity of endogenous genes, it lacks a general and easy-to-design toolbox to manipulate the genetic network. Here we present a type of self-assembly-induced RNA circuit that can directly build regulatory connections between endogenous genes. Inspired from the natural assembling process of guide RNA in the CRISPR/Cas9 complex, this design employs an independent trigger RNA strand to induce the formation of a ternary guide RNA assembly for functional control of CRISPR/Cas9. With this general principle, expressional regulations of endogenous genes can be controlled by totally independent endogenous small RNAs and mRNAs in E. coli via activatable CRISPR/Cas9 function. Moreover, the cellular phenotype of E. coli is successfully programmed with introduction of new gene connections. In addition, the functionality of this design is also verified in the mammalian system. This self-assembly-based RNA circuit exhibits a great flexibility and simplicity of design and provides a unique approach to build endogenous gene connections, which paves a broad way toward manipulation of cellular genetic networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Wei-Jia Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Yang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Yan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
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15
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Oesinghaus L, Simmel FC. Kontrolle von Genexpression in Säugetierzellen mithilfe von parallel schaltbaren Guide‐RNAs für Cas12a**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202107258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Oesinghaus
- Physics Department, E14 TU München Am Coulombwall 4a 85748 Garching Deutschland
| | - Friedrich C. Simmel
- Physics Department, E14 TU München Am Coulombwall 4a 85748 Garching Deutschland
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16
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Oesinghaus L, Simmel FC. Controlling Gene Expression in Mammalian Cells Using Multiplexed Conditional Guide RNAs for Cas12a*. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:23894-23902. [PMID: 34533878 PMCID: PMC8596743 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202107258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Spatiotemporal control of the activity of CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins is of considerable interest for basic research and therapeutics. Here, we show that conditional guide RNAs (gRNAs) for Cas12a can be transcribed in mammalian cells by RNA polymerase II, followed by activation via input-dependent processing of the 3' tail of the gRNA transcript. We demonstrate processing using an RNA strand displacement mechanism, as well as microRNA-dependent processing, and cleavage by a guanine-responsive ribozyme. We further demonstrate that Cas12a along with several independently switchable gRNAs can be compactly integrated on a single transcript using stabilizing RNA triplexes, providing a route towards Cas12a-based gene regulation constructs with multi-input switching capabilities. The principle is shown to work in HEK and mouse fibroblast cells using luminescence, fluorescence, and is also demonstrated for the conditional upregulation of an endogenous gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Oesinghaus
- Physics Department, E14TU MunichAm Coulombwall 4a85748GarchingGermany
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17
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Zhang QL, Wang LL, Liu Y, Lin J, Xu L. A kinetically controlled platform for ligand-oligonucleotide transduction. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4654. [PMID: 34341342 PMCID: PMC8329073 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24962-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ligand-oligonucleotide transduction provides the critical pathway to integrate non-nucleic acid molecules into nucleic acid circuits and nanomachines for a variety of strand-displacement related applications. Herein, a general platform is constructed to convert the signals of ligands into desired oligonucleotides through a precise kinetic control. In this design, the ligand-aptamer binding sequence with an engineered duplex stem is introduced between the toehold and displacement domains of the invading strand to regulate the strand-displacement reaction. Employing this platform, we achieve efficient transduction of both small molecules and proteins orthogonally, and more importantly, establish logical and cascading operations between different ligands for versatile transduction. Besides, this platform is capable of being directly coupled with the signal amplification systems to further enhance the transduction performance. This kinetically controlled platform presents unique features with designing simplicity and flexibility, expandable complexity and system compatibility, which may pave a broad road towards nucleic acid-based developments of sophisticated transduction networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu-Long Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liang-Liang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiao Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
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18
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Wang LL, Zhang QL, Wang Y, Liu Y, Lin J, Xie F, Xu L. Controllable DNA strand displacement by independent metal-ligand complexation. Chem Sci 2021; 12:8698-8705. [PMID: 34257868 PMCID: PMC8246113 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc01041g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction of artificial metal-ligand base pairs can enrich the structural diversity and functional controllability of nucleic acids. In this work, we revealed a novel approach by placing a ligand-type nucleoside as an independent toehold to control DNA strand-displacement reactions based on metal-ligand complexation. This metal-mediated artificial base pair could initiate strand invasion similar to the natural toehold DNA, but exhibited flexible controllability to manipulate the dynamics of strand displacement that was only governed by its intrinsic coordination properties. External factors that influence the intrinsic properties of metal-ligand complexation, including metal species, metal concentrations and pH conditions, could be utilized to regulate the strand dynamics. Reversible control of DNA strand-displacement reactions was also achieved through combination of the metal-mediated artificial base pair with the conventional toehold-mediated strand exchange by cyclical treatments of the metal ion and the chelating reagent. Unlike previous studies of embedded metal-mediated base pairs within natural base pairs, this metal-ligand complexation is not integrated into the nucleic acid structure, but functions as an independent toehold to regulate strand displacement, which would open a new door for the development of versatile dynamic DNA nanotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Liang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Qiu-Long Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Yang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Yan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Jiao Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Fan Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
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Tickner ZJ, Farzan M. Riboswitches for Controlled Expression of Therapeutic Transgenes Delivered by Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14060554. [PMID: 34200913 PMCID: PMC8230432 DOI: 10.3390/ph14060554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vectors developed from adeno-associated virus (AAV) are powerful tools for in vivo transgene delivery in both humans and animal models, and several AAV-delivered gene therapies are currently approved for clinical use. However, AAV-mediated gene therapy still faces several challenges, including limited vector packaging capacity and the need for a safe, effective method for controlling transgene expression during and after delivery. Riboswitches, RNA elements which control gene expression in response to ligand binding, are attractive candidates for regulating expression of AAV-delivered transgene therapeutics because of their small genomic footprints and non-immunogenicity compared to protein-based expression control systems. In addition, the ligand-sensing aptamer domains of many riboswitches can be exchanged in a modular fashion to allow regulation by a variety of small molecules, proteins, and oligonucleotides. Riboswitches have been used to regulate AAV-delivered transgene therapeutics in animal models, and recently developed screening and selection methods allow rapid isolation of riboswitches with novel ligands and improved performance in mammalian cells. This review discusses the advantages of riboswitches in the context of AAV-delivered gene therapy, the subsets of riboswitch mechanisms which have been shown to function in human cells and animal models, recent progress in riboswitch isolation and optimization, and several examples of AAV-delivered therapeutic systems which might be improved by riboswitch regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary J. Tickner
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Michael Farzan
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA;
- Emmune, Inc., Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
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Liu Y, Wang Y, Lin J, Xu L. Theophylline-induced synergic activation of guide RNA to control CRISPR/Cas9 function. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:5418-5421. [PMID: 33949481 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc01260f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ligand-induced activation of CRISPR/Cas9 function is achieved based on a synergic approach through the integration of the theophylline aptamer into protein-unrecognized regions of guide RNA. This design of allosteric regulation opens a new window towards the broad involvement of RNA aptamers for conditional control of CRISPR/Cas9 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Jiao Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
| | - Liang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic and Synthetic Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
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21
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Collins SP, Rostain W, Liao C, Beisel CL. Sequence-independent RNA sensing and DNA targeting by a split domain CRISPR-Cas12a gRNA switch. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:2985-2999. [PMID: 33619539 PMCID: PMC7968991 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
CRISPR technologies increasingly require spatiotemporal and dosage control of nuclease activity. One promising strategy involves linking nuclease activity to a cell's transcriptional state by engineering guide RNAs (gRNAs) to function only after complexing with a ‘trigger’ RNA. However, standard gRNA switch designs do not allow independent selection of trigger and guide sequences, limiting gRNA switch application. Here, we demonstrate the modular design of Cas12a gRNA switches that decouples selection of these sequences. The 5′ end of the Cas12a gRNA is fused to two distinct and non-overlapping domains: one base pairs with the gRNA repeat, blocking formation of a hairpin required for Cas12a recognition; the other hybridizes to the RNA trigger, stimulating refolding of the gRNA repeat and subsequent gRNA-dependent Cas12a activity. Using a cell-free transcription-translation system and Escherichia coli, we show that designed gRNA switches can respond to different triggers and target different DNA sequences. Modulating the length and composition of the sensory domain altered gRNA switch performance. Finally, gRNA switches could be designed to sense endogenous RNAs expressed only under specific growth conditions, rendering Cas12a targeting activity dependent on cellular metabolism and stress. Our design framework thus further enables tethering of CRISPR activities to cellular states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott P Collins
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - William Rostain
- Génomique Métabolique, Genoscope, Institut François Jacob, CEA, CNRS, Univ Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, 91057 Évry, France
| | - Chunyu Liao
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI)/Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Chase L Beisel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.,Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI)/Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.,Medical Faculty, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
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