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Patel VN, Ball JR, Choi SH, Lane ED, Wang Z, Aure MH, Villapudua CU, Zheng C, Bleck C, Mohammed H, Syed Z, Liu J, Hoffman MP. Loss of 3-O-sulfotransferase enzymes, Hs3st3a1 and Hs3st3b1, reduces kidney and glomerular size and disrupts glomerular architecture. Matrix Biol 2024:S0945-053X(24)00090-8. [PMID: 38944161 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2024.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is an important component of the kidney anionic filtration barrier, the glomerular basement membrane (GBM). HS chains attached to proteoglycan protein cores are modified by sulfotransferases in a highly ordered series of biosynthetic steps resulting in immense structural diversity due to negatively charged sulfate modifications. 3-O-sulfation is the least abundant modification generated by a family of seven isoforms but creates the most highly sulfated HS domains. We analyzed the kidney phenotypes in the Hs3st3a1, Hs3st3b1 and Hs3st6 -knockout (KO) mice, the isoforms enriched in kidney podocytes. Individual KO mice show no overt kidney phenotype, although Hs3st3b1 kidneys were smaller than wildtype (WT). Furthermore, Hs3st3a1-/-; Hs3st3b1-/- double knockout (DKO) kidneys were smaller but also had a reduction in glomerular size relative to wildtype (WT). Mass spectrometry analysis of kidney HS showed reduced 3-O-sulfation in Hs3st3a1-/- and Hs3st3b1-/-, but not in Hs3st6-/- kidneys. Glomerular HS showed reduced HS staining and reduced ligand-and-carbohydrate engagement (LACE) assay, a tool that detects changes in binding of growth factor receptor-ligand complexes to HS. Interestingly, DKO mice have increased levels of blood urea nitrogen, although no differences were detected in urinary levels of albumin, creatinine and nephrin. Finally, transmission electron microscopy showed irregular and thickened GBM and podocyte foot process effacement in the DKO compared to WT. Together, our data suggest that loss of 3-O-HS domains disrupts the kidney glomerular architecture without affecting the glomerular filtration barrier and overall kidney function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaishali N Patel
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - James R Ball
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sophie H Choi
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ethan D Lane
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Zhangjie Wang
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Marit H Aure
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Carlos U Villapudua
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Christopher Bleck
- NHLBI Electron Microscopy Core Facility, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Heba Mohammed
- NHLBI Electron Microscopy Core Facility, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Zulfeqhar Syed
- NHLBI Electron Microscopy Core Facility, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jian Liu
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Matthew P Hoffman
- Matrix and Morphogenesis Section, National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, DHHS, Bethesda, MD, USA
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2
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Yokoyama A, Suzuki S, Okamoto K, Sugawara A. The physiological and pathophysiological roles of carbohydrate response element binding protein in the kidney. Endocr J 2022; 69:605-612. [PMID: 35474028 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej22-0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose is not only the energy fuel for most cells, but also the signaling molecule which affects gene expression via carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP), a Mondo family transcription factor. In response to high glucose conditions, ChREBP regulates glycolytic and lipogenic genes by binding to carbohydrate response elements (ChoRE) in the regulatory region of its target genes, thus elucidating the role of ChREBP for converting excessively ingested carbohydrates to fatty acids as an energy storage in lipogenic tissues such as the liver and adipose tissue. While the pathophysiological roles of ChREBP for fatty liver and obesity in these tissues are well known, much of the physiological and pathophysiological roles of ChREBP in other tissues such as the kidney remains unclear despite its high levels of expression in them. This review will thus highlight the roles of ChREBP in the kidney and briefly introduce the latest research results that have been reported so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Yokoyama
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Susumu Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Koji Okamoto
- Division of Nephrology, Endocrinology, and Vascular Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
| | - Akira Sugawara
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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3
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Mashima R, Okuyama T, Ohira M. Physiology and Pathophysiology of Heparan Sulfate in Animal Models: Its Biosynthesis and Degradation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1963. [PMID: 35216081 PMCID: PMC8876164 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23041963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a type of glycosaminoglycan that plays a key role in a variety of biological functions in neurology, skeletal development, immunology, and tumor metastasis. Biosynthesis of HS is initiated by a link of xylose to Ser residue of HS proteoglycans, followed by the formation of a linker tetrasaccharide. Then, an extension reaction of HS disaccharide occurs through polymerization of many repetitive units consisting of iduronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine. Subsequently, several modification reactions take place to complete the maturation of HS. The sulfation positions of N-, 2-O-, 6-O-, and 3-O- are all mediated by specific enzymes that may have multiple isozymes. C5-epimerization is facilitated by the epimerase enzyme that converts glucuronic acid to iduronic acid. Once these enzymatic reactions have been completed, the desulfation reaction further modifies HS. Apart from HS biosynthesis, the degradation of HS is largely mediated by the lysosome, an intracellular organelle with acidic pH. Mucopolysaccharidosis is a genetic disorder characterized by an accumulation of glycosaminoglycans in the body associated with neuronal, skeletal, and visceral disorders. Genetically modified animal models have significantly contributed to the understanding of the in vivo role of these enzymes. Their role and potential link to diseases are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Mashima
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, National Center for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157-8535, Japan; (T.O.); (M.O.)
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4
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Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a disease of dysregulated blood glucose homeostasis. The current pandemic of diabetes is a significant driver of patient morbidity and mortality, as well as a major challenge to healthcare systems worldwide. The global increase in the incidence of diabetes has prompted researchers to focus on the different pathogenic processes responsible for type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Similarly, increased morbidity due to diabetic complications has accelerated research to uncover pathological changes causing these secondary complications. Albuminuria, or protein in the urine, is a well-recognised biomarker and risk factor for renal and cardiovascular disease. Albuminuria is a mediator of pathological abnormalities in diabetes-associated conditions such as nephropathy and atherosclerosis. Clinical screening and diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy is chiefly based on the presence of albuminuria. Given the ease in measuring albuminuria, the potential of using albuminuria as a biomarker of cardiovascular diseases is gaining widespread interest. To assess the benefits of albuminuria as a biomarker, it is important to understand the association between albuminuria and cardiovascular disease. This review examines our current understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in both forms of diabetes, with specific focus on the link between albuminuria and specific vascular complications of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pappitha Raja
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Alexander P Maxwell
- Nephrology Research, Centre for Public Health, Queen's University of Belfast, Northern Ireland Regional Nephrology Unit, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Derek P Brazil
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland, BT9 7BL, UK.
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5
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Yamada S. Specific functions of Exostosin-like 3 ( EXTL3) gene products. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2020; 25:39. [PMID: 32843889 PMCID: PMC7441721 DOI: 10.1186/s11658-020-00231-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Exostosin-like 3 (EXTL3) encodes the glycosyltransferases responsible for the biosynthesis of the backbone structure of heparan sulfate (HS), a sulfated polysaccharide that is ubiquitously distributed on the animal cell surface and in the extracellular matrix. A lack of EXTL3 reduces HS levels and causes embryonic lethality, indicating its indispensable role in the biosynthesis of HS. EXTL3 has also been identified as a receptor molecule for regenerating islet-derived (REG) protein ligands, which have been shown to stimulate islet β-cell growth. REG proteins also play roles in keratinocyte proliferation and/or differentiation, tissue regeneration and immune defenses in the gut as well as neurite outgrowth in the central nervous system. Compared with the established function of EXTL3 as a glycosyltransferase in HS biosynthesis, the REG-receptor function of EXTL3 is not conclusive. Genetic diseases caused by biallelic mutations in the EXTL3 gene were recently reported to result in a neuro-immuno-skeletal dysplasia syndrome. EXTL3 is a key molecule for the biosynthesis of HS and may be involved in the signal transduction of REG proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhei Yamada
- Department of Pathobiochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, 468-8503 Japan
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6
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Desideri S, Onions KL, Baker SL, Gamez M, El Hegni E Hussien H, Russell A, Satchell SC, Foster RR. Endothelial glycocalyx restoration by growth factors in diabetic nephropathy. Biorheology 2020; 56:163-179. [PMID: 31156139 DOI: 10.3233/bir-180199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The endothelial glycocalyx (eGlx) constitutes the first barrier to protein in all blood vessels. This is particularly noteworthy in the renal glomerulus, an ultrafiltration barrier. Leakage of protein, such as albumin, across glomerular capillaries results in albumin in the urine (albuminuria). This is a hall mark of kidney disease and can reflect loss of blood vessel integrity in microvascular beds elsewhere. We discuss evidence demonstrating that targeted damage to the glomerular eGlx results in increased glomerular albumin permeability. EGlx is lost in diabetes and experimental models demonstrate loss from glomerular endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)A is upregulated in early diabetes, which is associated with albuminuria. Treatment with paracrine growth factors such as VEGFC, VEGF165b and angiopoietin-1 can modify VEGFA signalling, rescue albumin permeability and restore glomerular eGlx in models of diabetes. Manipulation of VEGF receptor 2 signalling, or a common eGlx biosynthesis pathway by these growth factors, may protect and restore the eGlx layer. This would help to direct future therapeutics in diabetic nephropathy.
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Key Words
- Endothelial glycocalyx, diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, VEGF, VEGFC, VEGFA, VEGF165b, angiopoietin-1, vascular permeability, glomerulus, glomerular permeability
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Desideri
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Karen L Onions
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Siân L Baker
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Monica Gamez
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Hesham El Hegni E Hussien
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Amy Russell
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Simon C Satchell
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Rebecca R Foster
- Bristol Renal, Bristol Heart Institute, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, UK
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7
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Suzuki S, Yokoyama A, Noro E, Aoki S, Shimizu K, Shimada H, Sugawara A. Expression and pathophysiological significance of carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP) in the renal tubules of diabetic kidney. Endocr J 2020; 67:335-345. [PMID: 31813922 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej19-0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP), a glucose responsive transcription factor, mainly regulates expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism and lipogenesis. Recently, ChREBP is speculated to be involved in the onset and progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, there exists no report regarding the localization and function of ChREBP in the kidney. Therefore, we analyzed the localization of Chrebp mRNA expression in the wild type (WT) mice kidney using laser microdissection method, and observed its dominant expression in the proximal tubules. In diabetic mice, mRNA expression of Chrebp target genes in the proximal tubules, including Chrebpβ and thioredoxin-interacting protein (Txnip), significantly increased comparing with that of WT mice. Co-overexpression of ChREBP and its partner Mlx, in the absence of glucose, also increased TXNIP mRNA expression as well as high glucose in human proximal tubular epithelial cell line HK-2. Since TXNIP is well known to be involved in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), we next examined the effect of ChREBP/Mlx co-overexpression, in the absence of glucose, on ROS production in HK-2 cells. Interestingly, ChREBP/Mlx co-overexpression also induced ROS production significantly as well as high glucose. Moreover, both high glucose-induced increase of TXNIP mRNA expression and ROS production were abrogated by ChREBP small interfering RNA transfection. Taken together, high glucose-activated ChREBP in the renal proximal tubules induce the expression of TXNIP mRNA, resulting in the production of ROS which may cause renal tubular damage. It is therefore speculated that ChREBP is involved in the onset and progression of DN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susumu Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yokoyama
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Erika Noro
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Satoshi Aoki
- Division of Nephrology, Endocrinology and Vascular Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
| | - Kyoko Shimizu
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Hiroki Shimada
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Akira Sugawara
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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8
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Ronco P. Pathophysiology of the glomerulus: KI tells the story. Kidney Int 2020; 97:5-9. [PMID: 31901357 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2019.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Ronco
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France; Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), Unité Mixte de Recherche S1155, Paris, France; Hôpital de jour - Néphrologie, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Tenon, Paris, France.
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9
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Khalil R, Lalai RA, Wiweger MI, Avramut CM, Koster AJ, Spaink HP, Bruijn JA, Hogendoorn PCW, Baelde HJ. Glomerular permeability is not affected by heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan deficiency in zebrafish embryos. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2019; 317:F1211-F1216. [PMID: 31461353 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00126.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteinuria develops when specific components in the glomerular filtration barrier have impaired function. Although the precise components involved in maintaining this barrier have not been fully identified, heparan sulfate proteoglycans are believed to play an essential role in maintaining glomerular filtration. Although in situ studies have shown that a loss of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans increases the permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier, recent studies using experimental models have shown that podocyte-specific deletion of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan assembly does not lead to proteinuria. However, tubular reabsorption of leaked proteins might have masked an increase in glomerular permeability in these models. Furthermore, not only podocytes but also glomerular endothelial cells are involved in heparan sulfate synthesis in the glomerular filtration barrier. Therefore, we investigated the effect of a global heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan deficiency on glomerular permeability. We used a zebrafish embryo model carrying a homozygous germline mutation in the ext2 gene. Glomerular permeability was assessed with a quantitative dextran tracer injection method. In this model, we accounted for tubular reabsorption. Loss of anionic sites in the glomerular basement membrane was measured using polyethyleneimine staining. Although mutant animals had significantly fewer negatively charged areas in the glomerular basement membrane, glomerular permeability was unaffected. Moreover, heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan-deficient embryos had morphologically intact podocyte foot processes. Glomerular filtration remains fully functional despite a global reduction of heparan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramzi Khalil
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Reshma A Lalai
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Cristina M Avramut
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Abraham J Koster
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Herman P Spaink
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A Bruijn
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Hans J Baelde
- Department of Pathology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Pathophysiological and molecular mechanisms involved in renal congestion in a novel rat model. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16808. [PMID: 30429498 PMCID: PMC6235885 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35162-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased central venous pressure in congestive heart failure causes renal dysfunction; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We created a rat renal congestion model and investigated the effect of renal congestion on hemodynamics and molecular mechanisms. The inferior vena cava (IVC) between the renal veins was ligated by suture in male Sprague-Dawley rats to increase upstream IVC pressure and induce congestion in the left kidney only. Left kidney congestion reduced renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate, and increased renal interstitial hydrostatic pressure. Tubulointerstitial and glomerular injury and medullary thick ascending limb hypoxia were observed only in the congestive kidneys. Molecules related to extracellular matrix expansion, tubular injury, and focal adhesion were upregulated in microarray analysis. Renal decapsulation ameliorated the tubulointerstitial injury. Electron microscopy captured pericyte detachment in the congestive kidneys. Transgelin and platelet-derived growth factor receptors, as indicators of pericyte-myofibroblast transition, were upregulated in the pericytes and the adjacent interstitium. With the compression of the peritubular capillaries and tubules, hypoxia and physical stress induce pericyte detachment, which could result in extracellular matrix expansion and tubular injury in renal congestion.
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Galvis-Ramírez MF, Quintana-Castillo JC, Bueno-Sanchez JC. Novel Insights Into the Role of Glycans in the Pathophysiology of Glomerular Endotheliosis in Preeclampsia. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1470. [PMID: 30405431 PMCID: PMC6206159 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The polysaccharide heparan sulfate is ubiquitously expressed as a proteoglycan in extracellular matrices and on cell surfaces. In the glomerular filtration barrier, the action of the heparan sulfate is directly related to the function of glomerular filtration, mostly attributed to the sulfated domains that occur along the polysaccharide chain, as evidenced by fact that release of fragments of heparan sulfate by heparanase significantly increases the permeability of albumin passage through the glomerular endothelium, event that originates proteinuria. This review aims to show the importance of the structural domains of heparan sulfate in the process of selective permeability and to demonstrate how these domains may be altered during the glomerular inflammation processes that occur in preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. F. Galvis-Ramírez
- Grupo Reproducción, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - J. C. Quintana-Castillo
- Grupo Infettare, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - J. C. Bueno-Sanchez
- Grupo Reproducción, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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