1
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Pelaz SG, Flores-Hernández R, Vujic T, Schvartz D, Álvarez-Vázquez A, Ding Y, García-Vicente L, Belloso A, Talaverón R, Sánchez JC, Tabernero A. A proteomic approach supports the clinical relevance of TAT-Cx43 266-283 in glioblastoma. Transl Res 2024; 272:95-110. [PMID: 38876188 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2024.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most frequent and aggressive primary brain cancer. The Src inhibitor, TAT-Cx43266-283, exerts antitumor effects in in vitro and in vivo models of GBM. Because addressing the mechanism of action is essential to translate these results to a clinical setting, in this study we carried out an unbiased proteomic approach. Data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry proteomics allowed the identification of 190 proteins whose abundance was modified by TAT-Cx43266-283. Our results were consistent with the inhibition of Src as the mechanism of action of TAT-Cx43266-283 and unveiled antitumor effectors, such as p120 catenin. Changes in the abundance of several proteins suggested that TAT-Cx43266-283 may also impact the brain microenvironment. Importantly, the proteins whose abundance was reduced by TAT-Cx43266-283 correlated with an improved GBM patient survival in clinical datasets and none of the proteins whose abundance was increased by TAT-Cx43266-283 correlated with shorter survival, supporting its use in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara G Pelaz
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain.
| | - Raquel Flores-Hernández
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Tatjana Vujic
- Department of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland; University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne-Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Geneva University Hospital and University of Geneva, Lausanne Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Domitille Schvartz
- Department of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland; University of Geneva, Faculty of Medicine, Proteomics Core Facility, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Álvarez-Vázquez
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Yuxin Ding
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Laura García-Vicente
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Aitana Belloso
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | - Rocío Talaverón
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain
| | | | - Arantxa Tabernero
- Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León (INCYL), Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, Salamanca, 37007, Spain.
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7
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Sievers P, Henneken SC, Blume C, Sill M, Schrimpf D, Stichel D, Okonechnikov K, Reuss DE, Benzel J, Maaß KK, Kool M, Sturm D, Zheng T, Ghasemi DR, Kohlhof-Meinecke P, Cruz O, Suñol M, Lavarino C, Ruf V, Boldt HB, Pagès M, Pouget C, Schweizer L, Kranendonk MEG, Akhtar N, Bunkowski S, Stadelmann C, Schüller U, Mueller WC, Dohmen H, Acker T, Harter PN, Mawrin C, Beschorner R, Brandner S, Snuderl M, Abdullaev Z, Aldape K, Gilbert MR, Armstrong TS, Ellison DW, Capper D, Ichimura K, Reifenberger G, Grundy RG, Jabado N, Krskova L, Zapotocky M, Vicha A, Varlet P, Wesseling P, Rutkowski S, Korshunov A, Wick W, Pfister SM, Jones DTW, von Deimling A, Pajtler KW, Sahm F. Recurrent fusions in PLAGL1 define a distinct subset of pediatric-type supratentorial neuroepithelial tumors. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 142:827-839. [PMID: 34355256 PMCID: PMC8500895 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02356-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ependymomas encompass a heterogeneous group of central nervous system (CNS) neoplasms that occur along the entire neuroaxis. In recent years, extensive (epi-)genomic profiling efforts have identified several molecular groups of ependymoma that are characterized by distinct molecular alterations and/or patterns. Based on unsupervised visualization of a large cohort of genome-wide DNA methylation data, we identified a highly distinct group of pediatric-type tumors (n = 40) forming a cluster separate from all established CNS tumor types, of which a high proportion were histopathologically diagnosed as ependymoma. RNA sequencing revealed recurrent fusions involving the pleomorphic adenoma gene-like 1 (PLAGL1) gene in 19 of 20 of the samples analyzed, with the most common fusion being EWSR1:PLAGL1 (n = 13). Five tumors showed a PLAGL1:FOXO1 fusion and one a PLAGL1:EP300 fusion. High transcript levels of PLAGL1 were noted in these tumors, with concurrent overexpression of the imprinted genes H19 and IGF2, which are regulated by PLAGL1. Histopathological review of cases with sufficient material (n = 16) demonstrated a broad morphological spectrum of tumors with predominant ependymoma-like features. Immunohistochemically, tumors were GFAP positive and OLIG2- and SOX10 negative. In 3/16 of the cases, a dot-like positivity for EMA was detected. All tumors in our series were located in the supratentorial compartment. Median age of the patients at the time of diagnosis was 6.2 years. Median progression-free survival was 35 months (for 11 patients with data available). In summary, our findings suggest the existence of a novel group of supratentorial neuroepithelial tumors that are characterized by recurrent PLAGL1 fusions and enriched for pediatric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Sievers
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sophie C Henneken
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christina Blume
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Bioinformatics and Omics Data Analytics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Sill
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Schrimpf
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Damian Stichel
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Konstantin Okonechnikov
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David E Reuss
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Benzel
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kendra K Maaß
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marcel Kool
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Dominik Sturm
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Pediatric Glioma Research Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tuyu Zheng
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David R Ghasemi
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Ofelia Cruz
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mariona Suñol
- Department of Pathology, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cinzia Lavarino
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Viktoria Ruf
- Institute of Neuropathology, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Henning B Boldt
- Department of Pathology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Mélanie Pagès
- Department of Neuropathology, GHU Paris Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Sainte-Anne Hospital, Paris, France
- Laboratory of Translational Research in Pediatric Oncology, SIREDO, INSERM U830, Institut Curie, Paris Sciences Lettres University, Paris, France
| | | | - Leonille Schweizer
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Neuropathology, Berlin, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Berlin, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mariëtte E G Kranendonk
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Noreen Akhtar
- Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
- Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Stephanie Bunkowski
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Centre Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christine Stadelmann
- Institute for Neuropathology, University Medical Centre Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Schüller
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Research Institute Children's Cancer Center Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Wolf C Mueller
- Paul-Flechsig Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Hildegard Dohmen
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Till Acker
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Patrick N Harter
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), University Hospital, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger-Institute), University Hospital, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Mawrin
- Department of Neuropathology, Otto-Von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Rudi Beschorner
- Department of Neuropathology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Brandner
- Division of Neuropathology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Queen Square, London, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Matija Snuderl
- Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zied Abdullaev
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kenneth Aldape
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mark R Gilbert
- Neuro-Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - David W Ellison
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - David Capper
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Neuropathology, Berlin, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Berlin, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Koichi Ichimura
- Division of Brain Tumor Translational Research, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Guido Reifenberger
- Institute of Neuropathology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen/Düsseldorf, Essen/Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Richard G Grundy
- Children's Brain Tumour Research Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Nada Jabado
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1B1, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
- The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Center, Montreal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Lenka Krskova
- Prague Brain Tumor Research Group, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Zapotocky
- Prague Brain Tumor Research Group, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Pediatric Haematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ales Vicha
- Prague Brain Tumor Research Group, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
- Department of Pediatric Haematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pascale Varlet
- Department of Neuropathology, GHU Paris Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Sainte-Anne Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Pieter Wesseling
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VUmc and Brain Tumor Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Rutkowski
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andrey Korshunov
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wick
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neurooncology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neurology and Neurooncology Program, National Center for Tumor Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan M Pfister
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David T W Jones
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Pediatric Glioma Research Group, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas von Deimling
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kristian W Pajtler
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Felix Sahm
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
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8
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Comba A, Faisal SM, Varela ML, Hollon T, Al-Holou WN, Umemura Y, Nunez FJ, Motsch S, Castro MG, Lowenstein PR. Uncovering Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of High-Grade Gliomas: From Disease Biology to Therapeutic Implications. Front Oncol 2021; 11:703764. [PMID: 34422657 PMCID: PMC8377724 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.703764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastomas (GBM) are the most common and aggressive tumors of the central nervous system. Rapid tumor growth and diffuse infiltration into healthy brain tissue, along with high intratumoral heterogeneity, challenge therapeutic efficacy and prognosis. A better understanding of spatiotemporal tumor heterogeneity at the histological, cellular, molecular, and dynamic levels would accelerate the development of novel treatments for this devastating brain cancer. Histologically, GBM is characterized by nuclear atypia, cellular pleomorphism, necrosis, microvascular proliferation, and pseudopalisades. At the cellular level, the glioma microenvironment comprises a heterogeneous landscape of cell populations, including tumor cells, non-transformed/reactive glial and neural cells, immune cells, mesenchymal cells, and stem cells, which support tumor growth and invasion through complex network crosstalk. Genomic and transcriptomic analyses of gliomas have revealed significant inter and intratumoral heterogeneity and insights into their molecular pathogenesis. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that diverse dynamics of collective motion patterns exist in glioma tumors, which correlate with histological features. We hypothesize that glioma heterogeneity is not stochastic, but rather arises from organized and dynamic attributes, which favor glioma malignancy and influences treatment regimens. This review highlights the importance of an integrative approach of glioma histopathological features, single-cell and spatially resolved transcriptomic and cellular dynamics to understand tumor heterogeneity and maximize therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Comba
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Syed M Faisal
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Maria Luisa Varela
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Todd Hollon
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Wajd N Al-Holou
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Yoshie Umemura
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Felipe J Nunez
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Therapy, Fundación Instituto Leloir, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sebastien Motsch
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Maria G Castro
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Pedro R Lowenstein
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.,Rogel Cancer Center, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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