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Aly SM, Omran A, Gaulier JM, Allorge D. Substance Use among Adolescents: A Retrospective Study (2017-2018) in the Toxicology Unit, University Hospital of Lille, France. TOXICS 2022; 10:594. [PMID: 36287874 PMCID: PMC9611143 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10100594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Research on adolescent substance use is of utmost importance. Using local toxicological data, both prevalence and pattern of substance use (SU) and substance-related death (SRD) can be assessed to design effective prevention programs. A retrospective study of toxicology investigations of all adolescents referred to the medico-legal section of the Toxicology Unit of the University Hospital of Lille, France, for a 2-year period from 2017 to 2018. In the total sample of 1961 cases, adolescents accounted for 3.3% of the cases (n = 65). Among the adolescents, 16.9% were aged 10−14 years and 83.1% were aged >14−19 years. About 69.2% were males. Less than 70% of all presented adolescents used substances. More than two-thirds (74%) of positive detections were male. Illicit substances (43%) were the most detected substance followed by alcohol (20%) and prescription substances (20%). Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was extremely common as it was found in 29% of all adolescents. Cocaine and amphetamines were detected in 13.8% of total tested adolescents. Polysubstance use was common between alcohol and THC and among males. About one-third of deaths were due to substance use. About 54% of SRD was associated with polysubstance detection. It is recommended that illicit substances, ethanol, and prescription substances are targeted for testing among adolescents in order to provide appropriate prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanaa M. Aly
- Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Ahmed Omran
- Pediatrics and Neonatology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
| | - Jean-Michel Gaulier
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, F-59000 Lille, France
- Université de Lille, URL 4483—IMPECS—IMPact de l’Environnement Chimique sur la Santé Humaine, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Delphine Allorge
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, F-59000 Lille, France
- Université de Lille, URL 4483—IMPECS—IMPact de l’Environnement Chimique sur la Santé Humaine, F-59000 Lille, France
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Abstract
This review summarizes current evidence on the abuse and misuse of the gabapentinoids pregabalin and gabapentin. Pharmacovigilance studies, register-based studies, surveys, clinical toxicology studies, and forensic toxicology studies were identified and scrutinized with the goal to define the problem, identify risk factors, and discuss possible methods to reduce the potential for abuse and misuse. Studies found that gabapentinoids are abused and misused and that individuals with a history of psychiatric disorders or substance use disorder seem to be at high risk. Moreover, some evidence supports the notion that patients with opioid use disorders may be at an increased risk of abusing gabapentinoids. Available evidence also suggests that abuse and misuse are more frequent in users of pregabalin compared with users of gabapentin. Health professionals and prescribers should be aware of the risk for misuse of pregabalin and gabapentin, which eventually could lead to abuse, substance dependence, and intoxications. Prescribing to patients belonging to risk populations such as those with psychiatric disorders or substance use disorder should be avoided if possible and, if prescribed, signs of misuse and abuse should be monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Staffan Hägg
- Futurum, Jönköping, Region Jönköping County and Department of Biomedicine and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Futurum, Hus B4, Ryhov Hospital, S-551 85, Jönköping, Sweden.
| | - Anna K Jönsson
- Division of Drug Research, Department of Biomedicine and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Chemistry, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Johan Ahlner
- Division of Drug Research, Department of Biomedicine and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Chemistry, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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Coutens B, Mouledous L, Stella M, Rampon C, Lapeyre-Mestre M, Roussin A, Guiard BP, Jouanjus E. Lack of correlation between the activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system and the rewarding properties of pregabalin in mouse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2069-2082. [PMID: 30879119 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05198-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pregabalin is a psychoactive drug indicated in the treatment of epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and generalized anxiety disorders. Pregabalin acts on different neurotransmission systems by inactivating the alpha2-delta subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels. In light of this pharmacological property, the hypothesis has been raised that pregabalin may regulate the mesolimbic dopamine pathway and thereby display a potential for misuse or abuse as recently observed in humans. Although some preclinical data support this possibility, the rewarding properties of gabapentinoid are still a matter for debate. OBJECTIVE The aim of this work was to evaluate the rewarding properties of pregabalin and to determine its putative mechanism of action in healthy mice. RESULTS Pregabalin alone (60 mg/kg; s.c.) produced a rewarding effect in the conditioned place preference (CPP) test albeit to a lower extent than cocaine (30 mg/kg; s.c.). Interestingly, when assessing locomotor activity in the CPP, the PGB60 group, similarly to the cocaine group, showed an increased locomotor activity. In vivo single unit extracellular recording showed that pregabalin had mixed effects on dopamine (DA) neuronal activity in the ventral tegmental area since it decreased the activity of 50% of neurons and increased 28.5% of them. In contrast, cocaine decreased 75% of VTA DA neuronal activity whereas none of the neurons were activated. Intracerebal microdialysis was then conducted in awake freely mice to determine to what extent such electrophysiological parameters influence the extracellular DA concentrations ([DA]ext) in the nucleus accumbens. Although pregabalin failed to modify this parameter, cocaine produced a robust increase (800%) in [DA]ext. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these electrophysiological and neurochemical experiments suggest that the rewarding properties of pregabalin result from a different mode of action than that observed with cocaine. Further experiments are warranted to determine whether such undesirable effects can be potentiated under pathological conditions such as neuropathic pain, mood disorders, or addiction and to identify the key neurotransmitter system involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basile Coutens
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (CRCA), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Bât4R3, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France
| | - Lionel Mouledous
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (CRCA), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Bât4R3, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France
| | - Manta Stella
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (CRCA), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Bât4R3, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France
| | - Claire Rampon
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (CRCA), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Bât4R3, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France
| | - Maryse Lapeyre-Mestre
- Pharmacoepidemiology Research Unit, INSERM-Université Toulouse 3, UMR 1027, 31000, Toulouse, France
| | - Anne Roussin
- Pharmacoepidemiology Research Unit, INSERM-Université Toulouse 3, UMR 1027, 31000, Toulouse, France
| | - Bruno P Guiard
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale (CRCA), Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, Bât4R3, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062, Toulouse, Cedex 09, France. .,Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 92290, Chatenay-Malabry, France. .,CNRS UMR-5169, UPS, 31000, Toulouse, France.
| | - Emilie Jouanjus
- Pharmacoepidemiology Research Unit, INSERM-Université Toulouse 3, UMR 1027, 31000, Toulouse, France
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Bonnet U, Scherbaum N. How addictive are gabapentin and pregabalin? A systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2017; 27:1185-1215. [PMID: 28988943 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.08.430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 07/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In the last ten years, gabapentin and pregabalin have been becoming dispensed broadly and sold on black markets, thereby, exposing millions to potential side-effects. Meanwhile, several pharmacovigilance-databases have warned for potential abuse liabilities and overdose fatalities in association with both gabapentinoids. To evaluate their addiction risk in more detail, we conducted a systematic review on PubMed/Scopus and included 106 studies. We did not find convincing evidence of a vigorous addictive power of gabapentinoids which is primarily suggested from their limited rewarding properties, marginal notes on relapses, and the very few cases with gabapentinoid-related behavioral dependence symptoms (ICD-10) in patients without a prior abuse history (N=4). In support, there was no publication about people who sought treatment for the use of gabapentinoids. Pregabalin appeared to be somewhat more addictive than gabapentin regarding the magnitude of behavioral dependence symptoms, transitions from prescription to self-administration, and the durability of the self-administrations. The principal population at risk for addiction of gabapentinoids consists of patients with other current or past substance use disorders (SUD), mostly opioid and multi-drug users, who preferred pregabalin. Pure overdoses of gabapentinoids appeared to be relative safe but can become lethal (pregabalin > gabapentin) in mixture with other psychoactive drugs, especially opioids again and sedatives. Based upon these results, we compared the addiction risks of gabapentin and pregabalin with those of traditional psychoactive substances and recommend that in patients with a history of SUD, gabapentinoids should be avoided or if indispensable, administered with caution by using a strict therapeutic and prescription monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Bonnet
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatic Medicine, Evangelisches Krankenhaus Castrop-Rauxel, Academic Teaching Hospital of the University of Duisburg-Essen, Grutholzallee 21, D-44577 Castrop-Rauxel, Germany; LVR-Hospital Essen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Duisburg-Essen, D-45147 Essen, Germany.
| | - N Scherbaum
- LVR-Hospital Essen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Duisburg-Essen, D-45147 Essen, Germany
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Pregabalin use disorder and secondary nicotine dependence in a woman with no substance abuse history. Therapie 2016; 71:575-578. [DOI: 10.1016/j.therap.2016.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Schjerning O, Rosenzweig M, Pottegård A, Damkier P, Nielsen J. Abuse Potential of Pregabalin: A Systematic Review. CNS Drugs 2016; 30:9-25. [PMID: 26767525 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-015-0303-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several case reports and epidemiological studies have raised concern about the abuse potential of pregabalin, the use of which has increased substantially over the last decade. Pregabalin is, in some cases, used for recreational purposes and it has incurred attention among drug abusers for causing euphoric and dissociative effects when taken in doses exceeding normal therapeutic dosages or used by alternative routes of administration, such as nasal insufflation or venous injection. The magnitude of the abuse potential and the mechanism behind it are not fully known. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to present a systematic review of the data concerning the abuse potential of pregabalin. METHODS We performed a systematic literature search and reviewed the preclinical, clinical and epidemiological data on the abuse potential of pregabalin. RESULTS We included preclinical (n = 17), clinical (n = 19) and epidemiological (n = 13) studies addressing the abuse potential of pregabalin. We also reviewed case reports (n = 9) concerning abuse of pregabalin. The preclinical studies indicated that pregabalin possesses modulatory effects on the GABA and glutamate systems, leaving room for an abuse potential. Further, clinical studies reported euphoria as a frequent side effect in patients treated with pregabalin. The majority of case reports concerning abuse of pregabalin involved patients with a history of substance abuse and, similarly, epidemiological studies found evidence of abuse, especially among opiate abusers. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the available literature suggests an important clinical abuse potential of pregabalin and prescribers should pay attention to signs of abuse, especially in patients with a history of substance abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ole Schjerning
- Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark. .,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark. .,Centre for Schizophrenia, Brandevej 5, 9220, Aalborg, Denmark.
| | | | - Anton Pottegård
- Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Per Damkier
- Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jimmi Nielsen
- Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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Lapeyre-Mestre M, Dupui M. Drug abuse monitoring: which pharmacoepidemiological resources at the European level? Therapie 2015; 70:147-65. [PMID: 25858571 DOI: 10.2515/therapie/2015010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring the potential for abuse and dependence of psychoactive substances falls within the scope of international conventions on narcotic drugs. At the European level, this monitoring is based on activities controlled by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) for substance abuse in general and by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for marketed drugs, in the context of pharmacovigilance. If France has set up in the early 1990s an original system to assess potential for abuse of psychoactive substances, with specific tools combining both the evaluation of the use of these substances (illicit substances or diverted drugs), and the consequences of that use in terms of morbidity and mortality, there is no equivalent in other European countries. Indeed, unlike the USA, who, for several decades, organized this type of surveillance, with a multisource approach (sentinel systems, databases, medical and administrative data, databases for seeking care in relation abuse), we have not found in other European countries integrated system for identifying a signal of drug abuse, or to assess the impact of measures for minimizing the risk of abuse. However, some recent examples show a growing concern about drug addiction, based on a pharmacoepidemiological approach using pharmacovigilance databases or medical administrative data. These examples illustrate the interest of these approaches in the field of drug of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryse Lapeyre-Mestre
- CEIP-Addictovigilance de Toulouse, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, CHU de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Mathilde Dupui
- CEIP-Addictovigilance de Toulouse, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, CHU de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
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Lapeyre-Mestre M, Dupui M. Système de surveillance en addictovigilance : quelles données pharmacoépidémiologiques à l'échelle de l'Europe ? Therapie 2015. [DOI: 10.2515/therapie/2015006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Cavazos-Rehg PA, Breslau N, Hatsukami D, Krauss MJ, Spitznagel EL, Grucza RA, Salyer P, Hartz SM, Bierut LJ. Smoking cessation is associated with lower rates of mood/anxiety and alcohol use disorders. Psychol Med 2014; 44:2523-35. [PMID: 25055171 PMCID: PMC4122254 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291713003206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The psychological outcomes that accompany smoking cessation are not yet conclusive but positive outcomes could help to persuade quitting. METHOD We used data from the longitudinal National Epidemiological Study of Alcohol and Related Conditions. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between cigarette smoking reduction and Wave 2 status of addiction/mental health disorder among daily smokers at Wave 1, stratified by status of the diagnosis of interest at Wave 1. We adjusted for differences in baseline covariates between smokers with different levels of smoking reduction between Wave 1 and Wave 2 using propensity score regression adjustment. RESULTS After adjusting for propensity scores and other mental health/addiction co-morbidities at Wave 2, among daily smokers who had current or lifetime history diagnosis of the outcome of interest at Wave 1, quitting by Wave 2 predicted a decreased risk of mood/anxiety disorder [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.4-0.9] and alcohol disorder (aOR 0.7, 95% CI 0.5-0.99) at Wave 2. Among daily smokers with no lifetime history diagnosis of the outcome of interest at Wave 1, quitting smoking by Wave 2 predicted a decreased risk of drug use disorder at Wave 2 (aOR 0.3, 95% CI 0.1-0.9). CONCLUSIONS There is no support in our data for the concern that smoking cessation would result in smokers' increased risk of some mental disorders. To the contrary, our data suggest that smoking cessation is associated with risk reduction for mood/anxiety or alcohol use disorder, even among smokers who have had a pre-existing disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naomi Breslau
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State, University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Dorothy Hatsukami
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Melissa J. Krauss
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Edward L. Spitznagel
- Department of Mathematics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Richard A. Grucza
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Patricia Salyer
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sarah M. Hartz
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Laura J. Bierut
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Launiainen T, Nupponen I, Halmesmäki E, Ojanperä I. Meconium drug testing reveals maternal misuse of medicinal opioids among addicted mothers. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:529-33. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Terhi Launiainen
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Forensic Medicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
| | - Irmeli Nupponen
- Hospital for Children and Adolescents; Helsinki University Central Hospital; Helsinki; Finland
| | - Erja Halmesmäki
- Hospital for Children and Adolescents; Helsinki University Central Hospital; Helsinki; Finland
| | - Ilkka Ojanperä
- Hjelt Institute, Department of Forensic Medicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
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Dome P, Gonda X, Rihmer Z. Effects of smoking on health outcomes in bipolar disorder with a special focus on suicidal behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.2217/npy.12.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kriikku P, Wilhelm L, Rintatalo J, Hurme J, Kramer J, Ojanperä I. Phenazepam abuse in Finland: findings from apprehended drivers, post-mortem cases and police confiscations. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 220:111-7. [PMID: 22391477 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 02/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Phenazepam is a long-acting benzodiazepine that, unlike other benzodiazepines, is currently not scheduled as a narcotic in Finland, most other European countries or the USA. It is used as an anxiolytic, sedative-hypnotic and anti-epileptic, mainly in Russia. In Finland, as well as in some other countries, an increase in the unauthorized use of phenazepam has been observed in recent years. In the one year period between July 1, 2010 and June 30, 2011 the prevalence of phenazepam in Finland was assessed among drivers apprehended for driving under the influence of drugs (DUID), in medico-legal autopsy cases and in police confiscations of illicit drugs. In DUID cases an LC-MS/MS method preceded by solid phase extraction was used for the determination of phenazepam. In the post-mortem investigations the sample preparation consisted of liquid-liquid extraction followed by derivatization and the determination was carried out by GC-MS. The police confiscations were analysed by GC-MS. There were 141 positive phenazepam cases among apprehended drivers, representing approximately 3.5% of all confirmed drug cases (n=4007) in this time period. The median (range) phenazepam blood concentration in DUID cases was 0.061 mg/L (0.004-3.600 mg/L). The median phenazepam concentration in cases with no concomitant stimulant use was significantly higher than the overall median concentration. Phenazepam was found in 17 medico-legal autopsy cases and the median (range) blood concentration was 0.048 mg/L (0.007-1.600 mg/L). Phenazepam was not considered by the medico-legal team to be the sole cause of death in any of the cases, the majority of them being accidental opiod overdoses. There were 26 seizures of phenazepam by the Police in the time period studied, some of the batches consisted of a mixture of phenazepam and stimulant designer drugs. The data show that phenazepam abuse is a widespread phenomenon in Finland. A typical user was a male multi-drug user in his 30s. The concentration range of phenazepam among apprehended drivers and medico-legal autopsy cases was wide and the drug was usually found along with other psychoactive drugs. Therefore, although it seems likely that phenazepam contributed to impairment of driving in some DUID cases, the extent of its effect remains unclear and further studies are needed to define the concentrations causing impairment and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirkko Kriikku
- Vita Health Care Services Ltd, Vita Laboratory, Laivakatu 5 F, 00150 Helsinki, Finland.
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