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Nicotine Pretreatment Increases Sensitivity to Reward Devaluation in Extinction. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-020-00422-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Boldry MC. Reinforcement Enhancing Effects of Nicotine Via Patch and Nasal Spray. Nicotine Tob Res 2020. [PMID: 29514317 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nty038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Confirming preclinical findings, nicotine in humans (via smoking) enhances reinforcement from nondrug rewards. Recent demonstration of similar effects with nicotine via e-cigarettes suggests they may also occur when using nicotine replacement therapies (NRT). METHODS Effects of nicotine via NRT patch or nasal spray were assessed on responding reinforced by music, video, or monetary rewards, or for no reward (control). Nontreatment seeking smokers (N = 31) participated in three virtually identical experimental sessions, each following overnight abstinence (CO ≤ 10 ppm). In a fully within-subjects design using a double-dummy procedure, these sessions involved: (1) nicotine patch (Nicoderm 14 mg) plus placebo spray, (2) placebo patch plus nicotine spray (Nicotrol, 2 × 1 mg/trial), or (3) placebo patch plus placebo spray. Session order was counter-balanced. RESULTS Relative to placebo, reinforced responding due to nicotine via spray or patch was greater for video reward (both p < .01) but not for music reward (both p > .10). Similar results for NRT spray and patch confirms preclinical findings indicating no difference between fast and slow nicotine delivery, respectively, on reinforcement enhancing effects. Withdrawal relief was unrelated to these effects of nicotine via NRT on nondrug reinforcement. CONCLUSIONS Nicotine from NRT has some reinforcement enhancing effects in humans, possibly in a manner consistent with nicotine via e-cigarettes but not tobacco smoking. Our findings could suggest differential dose-dependency of available rewards to enhanced reinforcement by nicotine. Such effects may help contribute to the efficacy of NRT for aiding smoking cessation, but more research focusing on dose-dependency of these nicotine actions is needed. IMPLICATIONS Acute nicotine from smoking enhances reinforced responding for nondrug sensory rewards. Yet, nonsmoked nicotine, including from NRT medications of patch and nasal spray, may act more selectively across rewards, perhaps due to lower dosing exposure. Our results suggest that nicotine via NRT enhances responding for visual (video) reward, but not from auditory (music) reward, just as in prior results using e-cigarettes. Withdrawal relief from NRT was unrelated to reinforced responding, consistent with positive (and not negative) reinforcement from this nicotine. Further research evaluating the dose-response effects of nicotine may clarify differences in enhanced reinforcement depending on the type of available reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A Perkins
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Joshua L Karelitz
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Margaret C Boldry
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
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Reinforcement enhancement by nicotine in adult rats: behavioral selectivity and relation to mode of delivery and blood nicotine levels. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:641-650. [PMID: 29128873 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4778-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine occur in human subjects and laboratory rats. However, the doses used in animal studies typically exceed smoking-associated levels of exposure, and generalized behavioral activation by nicotine can potentially confound data interpretation. METHODS During daily 60-min sessions, male adult rats pressed an "active" lever to illuminate a brief cue light. Pressing on either the active or inactive lever retracted both levers for 60 s. Nicotine (0.025-0.2 mg/kg) was given either by continuous intravenous (IV) infusion, or spaced IV pulses (3-s or 30-s/pulse), or pre-session subcutaneous (SC) injection. RESULTS Almost all rats responded preferentially for the cue light for several weeks. After several home-cage nicotine injections, reinforcement enhancement occurred even within the first nicotine test session. Nicotine increased active lever responding without altering inactive lever responding, with effects reliably observed at doses as low as 0.1 mg/kg SC or 0.1 mg/kg/session IV. Within the session, the 0.1 mg/kg dose maximally increased active lever responding by 2-3-fold, coinciding with serum levels of 25 ng/ml. Intravenous nicotine (tested at 0.1 mg/kg/60-min session) was equally effective whether delivered by continuous infusion or in a series of equally spaced 0.003 mg/kg pulses each of 3-s or 30-s duration. CONCLUSIONS Low doses of nicotine can potentiate responding for a primary sensory reinforcer without producing a generalized increase in lever pressing. Reinforcer enhancement by nicotine generalized to several modes of drug delivery, appeared to track circulating levels of drug, and occurred even at serum levels within the daytime range of moderate cigarette smokers.
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Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Boldry MC. Nicotine Acutely Enhances Reinforcement from Non-Drug Rewards in Humans. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:65. [PMID: 28507522 PMCID: PMC5410601 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical research documents that, aside from the primary and secondary reinforcing effects of nicotine intake itself, nicotine also acutely enhances the reinforcing efficacy of non-drug reinforcers ("rewards"). Study of these effects in humans has largely been overlooked, but very recent findings suggest they may have clinical implications for more fully understanding the persistence of tobacco dependence. This overview first outlines the topic and notes some recent human studies indirectly addressing nicotine effects on related responses (e.g., subjective ratings), explaining why those findings do not directly confirm enhancement of behavioral reinforcement per se due to nicotine. Then, the methodology used in the subsequently presented studies is described, demonstrating how those studies specifically did demonstrate enhancement of reinforced responding for non-drug rewards. The main section focuses on the limited controlled research to date directly assessing nicotine's acute reinforcement-enhancing effects in humans, particularly as it relates to reinforced behavioral responding for non-drug rewards in non-human animal models. After detailing those few existing human studies, we address potential consequences of these effects for dependence and tobacco cessation efforts and then suggest directions for future research. This research indicates that nicotine per se increases responding in humans that is reinforced by some rewards (auditory stimuli via music, visual stimuli via video), but perhaps not by others (e.g., money). These reinforcement-enhancing effects in smokers are not due to dependence or withdrawal relief and can be restored by a small amount of nicotine (similar to a smoking lapse), including from e-cigarettes, a non-tobacco nicotine product. Future clinical research should examine factors determining which types of rewards are (or are not) enhanced by nicotine, consequences of the loss of these nicotine effects after quitting smoking, potential individual differences in these effects, and the possibility that nicotine via nicotine replacement therapy and non-nicotine quit medications may attenuate loss of these effects upon quitting. Further study with humans of nicotine's reinforcement-enhancing effects may provide a more complete understanding of smoking persistence and added mechanisms of cessation medication efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A. Perkins
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Joshua L. Karelitz
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Margaret C. Boldry
- Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Nicotine enhancement and reinforcer devaluation: Interaction with opioid receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2016; 150-151:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Blunted striatal response to monetary reward anticipation during smoking abstinence predicts lapse during a contingency-managed quit attempt. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:751-60. [PMID: 26660448 PMCID: PMC5330670 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4152-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Tobacco smoking is associated with dysregulated reward processing within the striatum, characterized by hypersensitivity to smoking rewards and hyposensitivity to non-smoking rewards. This bias toward smoking reward at the expense of alternative rewards is further exacerbated by deprivation from smoking, which may contribute to difficulty maintaining abstinence during a quit attempt. OBJECTIVE We examined whether abstinence-induced changes in striatal processing of rewards predicted lapse likelihood during a quit attempt supported by contingency management (CM), in which abstinence from smoking was reinforced with money. METHODS Thirty-six non-treatment-seeking smokers participated in two functional MRI (fMRI) sessions, one following 24-h abstinence and one following smoking as usual. During each scan, participants completed a rewarded guessing task designed to elicit striatal activation in which they could earn smoking and monetary rewards delivered after the scan. Participants then engaged in a 3-week CM-supported quit attempt. RESULTS As previously reported, 24-h abstinence was associated with increased striatal activation in anticipation of smoking reward and decreased activation in anticipation of monetary reward. Individuals exhibiting greater decrements in right striatal activation to monetary reward during abstinence (controlling for activation during non-abstinence) were more likely to lapse during CM (p < 0.025), even when controlling for other predictors of lapse outcome (e.g., craving); no association was seen for smoking reward. CONCLUSIONS These results are consistent with a growing number of studies indicating the specific importance of disrupted striatal processing of non-drug reward in nicotine dependence and highlight the importance of individual differences in abstinence-induced deficits in striatal function for smoking cessation.
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Bunney PE, Burroughs D, Hernandez C, LeSage MG. The effects of nicotine self-administration and withdrawal on concurrently available chow and sucrose intake in adult male rats. Physiol Behav 2016; 154:49-59. [PMID: 26548500 PMCID: PMC5022775 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrate intake, preference, and taste thresholds may be altered in current and former cigarette smokers, which may mediate weight gain and risk for obesity in individuals who quit smoking. Attempts to model these effects in rodents have primarily used noncontingent nicotine administration. The purpose of this research was to characterize changes in chow and sucrose intake in rats during a 23-h access model of i.v. nicotine self-administration (NSA), in which rats lever-pressed for chow, sucrose, and nicotine under concurrent fixed-ratio (FR) 1 schedules. Male rats were assigned to one of three groups that differed in food and drug availability. The Nicotine C+S group had concurrent access to nicotine, chow, and sucrose. The Saline C+S group had access to saline, chow, and sucrose. The Nicotine C-Only group had access to nicotine and chow, but not sucrose. Changes in food intake and weight gain were assessed during baseline, NSA, and nicotine withdrawal (i.e., saline extinction). Weight gain was significantly slowed during NSA and increased during withdrawal, but did not differ between the nicotine groups. NSA produced a significant decrease in both chow and sucrose intake. Gradual tolerance to nicotine's effects on sucrose, but not chow intake, occurred. During withdrawal, chow and sucrose intake increased, with a larger percent increase in sucrose intake compared to chow. The proportion of total food intake from sucrose was greater at the end of withdrawal compared to baseline, indicating a history of nicotine intake changed dietary preference. Combined, these results indicate that sucrose intake is more resistant to nicotine's appetite suppressant effects and withdrawal from nicotine produces a greater increase in sweet food intake alongside general increases in chow intake. Changes in overall food intake in current and ex-smokers may lead to increased risk for obesity and other health problems, potentially limiting the benefit of quitting smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia E Bunney
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, 701 Park Ave., Minneapolis, MN 55415, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, 420 Delaware St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
| | - Danielle Burroughs
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, 701 Park Ave., Minneapolis, MN 55415, United States
| | - Christine Hernandez
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, 701 Park Ave., Minneapolis, MN 55415, United States
| | - Mark G LeSage
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, 701 Park Ave., Minneapolis, MN 55415, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, 420 Delaware St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, N218 Elliot Hall, 75 E River Rd., Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
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Kirshenbaum A, Green J, Fay M, Parks A, Phillips J, Stone J, Roy T. Reinforcer devaluation as a consequence of acute nicotine exposure and withdrawal. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:1583-94. [PMID: 25401169 PMCID: PMC4397123 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3792-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Nicotine discontinuation produces behaviors in rats that are congruent with anhedonia, and these symptoms may be related to the devaluation of non-nicotine reinforcers. OBJECTIVE Four separate experiments were performed to explore the parameters surrounding nicotine-induced reinforcer devaluation. METHODS In Experiments 1 and 2, nicotine (0.1 or 0.3 mg/kg) or 0.3 mg/kg nicotine plus 1.0 mg/kg mecamylamine was delivered to rats prior to progressive ratio (PR) schedule sessions in which sucrose was used as a reinforcer. In order to evaluate (a) reinforcer enhancement by nicotine and (b) reinforcer devaluation in the absence of nicotine, all rats experienced two PR schedule sessions per day for 10 days. Experiment 3 involved nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) and a visual stimulus in place of sucrose reinforcement. In Experiment 4, rats received nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) either before or after a single PR schedule session for 10 days. RESULTS Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that reinforcer devaluation is related to the occupation of nicotinic-acetylcholine receptors. Results from Experiment 3 provide some evidence that devaluation occurs with either sucrose or visual-stimulus reinforcement. Experiment 4 demonstrates that a necessary condition for reinforcer devaluation to occur is the concurrent exposure to the reinforcer and nicotine. CONCLUSIONS Reinforcer devaluation in rats emerges rapidly in a progressive, orderly fashion that coincides with accumulated exposure to nicotine. These results suggest that reinforcer devaluation may be a feature of nicotine that contributes to the abuse liability of tobacco products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Kirshenbaum
- Department of Psychology, Saint Michael's College, 1 Winooski Park Avenue, Colchester, VT, 05439-0001, USA,
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The discriminative stimulus effects of mecamylamine in nicotine-treated and untreated rhesus monkeys. Behav Pharmacol 2015; 25:296-305. [PMID: 24978703 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The extent to which chronic nicotine treatment can alter the effects of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine, and whether those effects can be attenuated by nicotine have not been clearly established in the literature. Here, the discriminative stimulus effects of mecamylamine were compared between one group of rhesus monkeys receiving a continuous infusion of nicotine base (5.6 mg/kg/day subcutaneously) and another group of monkeys not receiving nicotine treatment. Both groups responded under a fixed ratio 5 schedule of stimulus-shock termination. Stimulus control was obtained at doses of 1.78 mg/kg mecamylamine in monkeys receiving continuous nicotine and 5.6 mg/kg mecamylamine in monkeys not receiving continuous nicotine treatment. Nicotine did not attenuate the discriminative stimulus effects of mecamylamine in either group. Discontinuation of continuous nicotine produced responding on the mecamylamine lever within 24 h in some but not all monkeys. This may indicate a qualitative difference in the discriminative stimulus effects of mecamylamine between groups, perhaps reflecting antagonism of nicotine and nicotine withdrawal in monkeys receiving continuous nicotine. The failure of nicotine to reverse the effects of mecamylamine is consistent with a noncompetitive interaction at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and indicates that mecamylamine-induced withdrawal cannot be readily modified by nicotine.
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McClernon FJ, Addicott MA, Sweitzer MM. Smoking abstinence and neurocognition: implications for cessation and relapse. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 23:193-227. [PMID: 25655892 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-13665-3_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we review the last decade of research on the effects of smoking abstinence on various forms of neurocognition, including executive function (working memory, sustained attention, response inhibition), reward processing, and cue-reactivity. In our review we identify smoking abstinence-induced deficits in executive function mediated by effects on frontal circuitry, which in turn is known to be affected by modulation of cholinergic, dopaminergic, and other neurotransmitter systems. We also review evidence that smoking abstinence blunts reactivity to non-drug reinforcers-a finding that is consistent with results in the animal literature. Finally, our review of cue-reactivity indicates that smoking abstinence does not appear to amplify cue-provoked craving, although it may increase attentional bias to smoking-related cues. Inconsistencies across findings and potential contributing factors are discussed. In addition, we review the literature on the effects of nicotine and non-nicotine factors in neurocognition. Finally, we provide a multi-factor model and an agenda for future research on the effects of smoking abstinence on neurocognition. The model includes four distinct yet interacting factors, including: Negative Reinforcement, Drug-Reward Bias, Goal and Skill Interference, and Non-Cognitive Factors. Additional research is needed to further evaluate the scope and time-course of abstinence-induced changes in neurocognition, the mechanisms that underlie these changes and the specific role of these processes in drug reinforcement, lapse, and relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Joseph McClernon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, 2608 Erwin Rd Box 3527, Lakeview Pavilion E Ste 300, Durham, NC, 27705-4596, USA,
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Pergadia ML, Der-Avakian A, D'Souza MS, Madden PA, Heath AC, Shiffman S, Markou A, Pizzagalli DA. Association between nicotine withdrawal and reward responsiveness in humans and rats. JAMA Psychiatry 2014; 71:1238-1245. [PMID: 25208057 PMCID: PMC4353576 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Reward-related disturbances after withdrawal from nicotine are hypothesized to contribute to relapse to tobacco smoking but mechanisms underlying and linking such processes remain largely unknown. OBJECTIVE To determine whether withdrawal from nicotine affects reward responsiveness (ie, the propensity to modulate behavior as a function of prior reinforcement experience) across species using translational behavioral assessments in humans and rats. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS Experimental studies used analogous reward responsiveness tasks in both humans and rats to examine whether reward responsiveness varied in (1) an ad libitum smoking condition compared with a 24-hour acute nicotine abstinence condition in 31 human smokers with (n = 17) or without (n = 14) a history of depression; (2) rats 24 hours after withdrawal from chronic nicotine (n = 19) or saline (n = 20); and (3) rats following acute nicotine exposure after withdrawal from either chronic nicotine or saline administration. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Performance on a reward responsiveness task under nicotine and nonnicotine conditions. RESULTS In both human smokers and nicotine-treated rats, reward responsiveness was significantly reduced after 24-hour withdrawal from nicotine (P < .05). In humans, withdrawal-induced deficits in reward responsiveness were greater in those with a history of depression. In rats previously exposed to chronic nicotine, acute nicotine reexposure long after withdrawal potentiated reward responsiveness (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE These findings across species converge in suggesting that organisms have diminished ability to modulate behavior as a function of reward during withdrawal of nicotine. This blunting may contribute to relapse to tobacco smoking, particularly in depression-vulnerable individuals, to reinstate responsiveness to natural rewards and to experience potentiated nicotine-induced reward responsiveness. Moreover, demonstration of behavioral homology across humans and rodents provides a strong translational framework for the investigation and development of clinical treatments targeting reward responsiveness deficits during early withdrawal of nicotine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele L. Pergadia
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO,Corresponding Author: Michele L. Pergadia, PhD, Washington University School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry, 660 S. Euclid, Campus Box 8134, St. Louis, MO 63110; Phone (314) 286-2270; Fax (314) 286-2213;
| | | | | | - Pamela A.F. Madden
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Andrew C. Heath
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | | | - Athina Markou
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego
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Sweitzer MM, Geier CF, Joel DL, McGurrin P, Denlinger R, Forbes E, Donny EC. Dissociated effects of anticipating smoking versus monetary reward in the caudate as a function of smoking abstinence. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 76:681-8. [PMID: 24342923 PMCID: PMC4026339 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Theories of addiction suggest that chronic smoking may be associated with both hypersensitivity to smoking and related cues and hyposensitivity to alternative reinforcers. However, neural responses to smoking and nonsmoking rewards are rarely evaluated within the same paradigm, leaving the extent to which both processes operate simultaneously uncertain. Behavioral evidence and theoretical models suggest that dysregulated reward processing may be more pronounced during deprivation from nicotine, but neuroimaging evidence on the effects of deprivation on reward processing is limited. The current study examined the impact of deprivation from smoking on neural processing of both smoking and monetary rewards. METHODS Two separate functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were performed in 38 daily smokers, one after smoking without restriction and one following 24 hours of abstinence. A rewarded guessing task was conducted during each scan to evaluate striatal blood oxygen level-dependent response during anticipation of both smoking and monetary rewards. RESULTS A significant reward type by abstinence interaction was observed in the bilateral caudate and medial prefrontal cortex during reward anticipation. The blood oxygen level-dependent response to anticipation of smoking reward was significantly higher and anticipation of monetary rewards was significantly lower during abstinence compared with nonabstinence. Attenuation of monetary reward-related activation during abstinence was significantly correlated with abstinence-induced increases in craving and withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS These results provide the first direct evidence of dissociated effects of smoking versus monetary rewards as a function of abstinence. The findings suggest an important neural pathway that may underlie the choice to smoke in lieu of alternative reinforcement during a quit attempt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie M. Sweitzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center
| | - Charles F. Geier
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Penn State University
| | | | | | | | - Erika Forbes
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center,Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University
| | - Eric C. Donny
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center,Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University
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Perry CJ, Zbukvic I, Kim JH, Lawrence AJ. Role of cues and contexts on drug-seeking behaviour. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:4636-72. [PMID: 24749941 PMCID: PMC4209936 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental stimuli are powerful mediators of craving and relapse in substance-abuse disorders. This review examined how animal models have been used to investigate the cognitive mechanisms through which cues are able to affect drug-seeking behaviour. We address how animal models can describe the way drug-associated cues come to facilitate the development and persistence of drug taking, as well as how these cues are critical to the tendency to relapse that characterizes substance-abuse disorders. Drug-associated cues acquire properties of conditioned reinforcement, incentive motivation and discriminative control, which allow them to influence drug-seeking behaviour. Using these models, researchers have been able to investigate the pharmacology subserving the behavioural impact of environmental stimuli, some of which we highlight. Subsequently, we examine whether the impact of drug-associated stimuli can be attenuated via a process of extinction, and how this question is addressed in the laboratory. We discuss how preclinical research has been translated into behavioural therapies targeting substance abuse, as well as highlight potential developments to therapies that might produce more enduring changes in behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina J Perry
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthParkville, Vic., Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneParkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Isabel Zbukvic
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthParkville, Vic., Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneParkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Jee Hyun Kim
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthParkville, Vic., Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneParkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Andrew J Lawrence
- Behavioural Neuroscience Division, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental HealthParkville, Vic., Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneParkville, Vic., Australia
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Cassidy RN, Dallery J. Quantifying nicotine's value-enhancement effect using a behavioral economic approach. J Exp Anal Behav 2014; 102:353-62. [PMID: 25270581 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine increases the value of some reinforcing stimuli, and this effect may contribute to nicotine's widespread abuse. We aimed to quantify this effect using a behavioral economic analysis. Six Long- Evans rats were exposed to a modified observing response procedure. In this procedure, presses to one lever resulted either in food according to a variable-interval 15 s schedule or extinction; presses to a second, observing lever illuminated stimuli correlated with the schedule in effect on the food/extinction lever (i.e., conditioned reinforcers). The FR requirement on the observing lever increased across sessions. The number of presentations of the conditioned reinforcers was plotted as a function of FR value to generate a demand curve. Nicotine was then administered at a dose of 0.3 mg/kg. All demand curves were fitted to the exponential demand equation and a parameter reflecting reinforcer value was evaluated. Nicotine increased the value of the conditioned reinforcers as measured by this equation; nicotine also increased responding on the food/extinction lever. This analysis demonstrates that nicotine increases the value of conditioned reinforcers under certain conditions. The current procedure allows for a novel method of analyzing demand for conditioned reinforcers.
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Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Jao NC, Stratton E. Possible reinforcement enhancing effects of bupropion during initial smoking abstinence. Nicotine Tob Res 2013; 15:1141-5. [PMID: 23100457 PMCID: PMC3646646 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nts224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Due to a drop in nicotine, smoking cessation may attenuate reinforcement from sensory stimuli unrelated to nicotine intake. Recent rodent research suggests that bupropion may reverse this attenuation, perhaps helping explain its efficacy in aiding cessation. METHODS In a within-subjects, crossover study, smokers responded on a simple computer task for brief music reward available on a progressive ratio 50% schedule. Testing was done on three separate occasions: after ad lib smoking during prequit baseline and on the first day of two brief quit attempts while taking bupropion or placebo, in counter-balanced order. Number of operant responses was the measure of reinforcement. To more clearly assess abstinence and medication effects, those meeting 24-hr abstinence criteria (CO < 5 ppm; n = 5) or clearly failing to abstain (CO > 10 ppm; n = 5) during both medication conditions were compared. RESULTS Among abstainers, repeated measures ANOVA showed that reinforced responding decreased by nearly 50% from baseline after quitting on placebo (p = .03), while responding after quitting on bupropion was similar to that during baseline (-17%; p = .20). In contrast, those unable to abstain showed virtually identical reinforced responding due to either medication or baseline. CONCLUSIONS These exploratory findings confirm that responding for a reward unrelated to smoking decreases after abstinence and are consistent with animal research showing bupropion effects on enhancing reinforced responding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A Perkins
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Donny EC, Taylor TG, LeSage MG, Levin M, Buffalari DM, Joel D, Sved AF. Impact of tobacco regulation on animal research: new perspectives and opportunities. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 14:1319-38. [PMID: 22949581 PMCID: PMC3611983 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nts162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act in the United States and the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco or Health ratified by over 170 countries render scientific investigations into the abuse liability, harm, and effects of tobacco more critical than ever. A key area to explore relates to the potential regulation of nicotine content in cigarettes. Determining the nicotine content per cigarette below which smokers reliably reduce their consumption of and dependence on cigarettes, an idea proposed almost 20 years ago (Benowitz & Henningfield, 1994), could be a powerful approach to reduce the abuse liability and consequent harm from cigarettes. However, this approach is laden with potentially complex issues. Many of these complications can be studied using animal models, but they require a particular perspective. METHODS Herein, we review several challenges for animal researchers interested in nicotine reduction as examples of how this perspective dictates new approaches to animal research. These include defining the threshold nicotine dose for maintaining self-administration, evaluating the differential impact of various implementation strategies, assessing the factors that could interact with nicotine to alter the reinforcement threshold, describing the role of cues in maintaining low dose nicotine self-administration, and examining individual differences in response to nicotine reduction. CONCLUSIONS Researchers who study tobacco using animal models have the opportunity to play a central role in the regulatory science of tobacco and conduct studies that directly inform policy decisions that could impact the lives of millions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C Donny
- Department of Psychology, Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Sweitzer MM, Donny EC, Hariri AR. Imaging genetics and the neurobiological basis of individual differences in vulnerability to addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 123 Suppl 1:S59-71. [PMID: 22342427 PMCID: PMC3360987 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Addictive disorders are heritable, but the search for candidate functional polymorphisms playing an etiological role in addiction is hindered by complexity of the phenotype and the variety of factors interacting to impact behavior. Advances in human genome sequencing and neuroimaging technology provide an unprecedented opportunity to explore the impact of functional genetic variants on variability in behaviorally relevant neural circuitry. Here, we present a model for merging these technologies to trace the links between genes, brain, and addictive behavior. METHODS We describe imaging genetics and discuss the utility of its application to addiction. We then review data pertaining to impulsivity and reward circuitry as an example of how genetic variation may lead to variation in behavioral phenotype. Finally, we present preliminary data relating the neural basis of reward processing to individual differences in nicotine dependence. RESULTS Complex human behaviors such as addiction can be traced to their basic genetic building blocks by identifying intermediate behavioral phenotypes, associated neural circuitry, and underlying molecular signaling pathways. Impulsivity has been linked with variation in reward-related activation in the ventral striatum (VS), altered dopamine signaling, and functional polymorphisms of DRD2 and DAT1 genes. In smokers, changes in reward-related VS activation induced by smoking abstinence may be associated with severity of nicotine dependence. CONCLUSIONS Variation in genes related to dopamine signaling may contribute to heterogeneity in VS sensitivity to reward and, ultimately, to addiction. These findings illustrate the utility of the imaging genetics approach for investigating the neurobiological basis for vulnerability to addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie M. Sweitzer
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh,Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh
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