1
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Feng X, Chang R, Zhu H, Yang Y, Ji Y, Liu D, Qin H, Yin J, Rong H. Engineering Proteins for Cell Entry. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:4868-4882. [PMID: 37708383 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c00467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Proteins are essential for life, as they participate in all vital processes in the body. In the past decade, delivery of active proteins to specific cells and organs has attracted increasing interest. However, most proteins cannot enter the cytoplasm due to the cell membrane acting as a natural barrier. To overcome this challenge, various proteins have been engineered to acquire cell-penetrating capacity by mimicking or modifying natural shuttling proteins. In this review, we provide an overview of the different types of engineered cell-penetrating proteins such as cell-penetrating peptides, supercharged proteins, receptor-binding proteins, and bacterial toxins. We also discuss some strategies for improving endosomal escape such as pore formation, the proton sponge effect, and hijacking intracellular trafficking pathways. Finally, we introduce some novel methods and technologies for designing and detecting engineered cell-penetrating proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Feng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ruilong Chang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Haichao Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yifan Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yue Ji
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Dingkang Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Hai Qin
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital Guizhou Hospital, No. 206, Sixian Street, Baiyun District, Guiyang, Guizhou 550014, China
| | - Jun Yin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Haibo Rong
- Jiangsu Cancer Hospital & Jiangsu Institute of Cancer Research, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210009, China
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2
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Riley CM, Elwood JML, Henry MC, Hunter I, Daniel Lopez-Fernandez J, McEwan IJ, Jamieson C. Current and emerging approaches to noncompetitive AR inhibition. Med Res Rev 2023; 43:1701-1747. [PMID: 37062876 DOI: 10.1002/med.21961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) has been shown to be a key determinant in the pathogenesis of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). The current standard of care therapies targets the ligand-binding domain of the receptor and can afford improvements to life expectancy often only in the order of months before resistance occurs. Emerging preclinical and clinical compounds that inhibit receptor activity via differentiated mechanisms of action which are orthogonal to current antiandrogens show promise for overcoming treatment resistance. In this review, we present an authoritative summary of molecules that noncompetitively target the AR. Emerging small molecule strategies for targeting alternative domains of the AR represent a promising area of research that shows significant potential for future therapies. The overall quality of lead candidates in the area of noncompetitive AR inhibition is discussed, and it identifies the key chemotypes and associated properties which are likely to be, or are currently, positioned to be first in human applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Riley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jessica M L Elwood
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Martyn C Henry
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Irene Hunter
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | | | - Iain J McEwan
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Craig Jamieson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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3
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Katleba KD, Ghosh PM, Mudryj M. Beyond Prostate Cancer: An Androgen Receptor Splice Variant Expression in Multiple Malignancies, Non-Cancer Pathologies, and Development. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2215. [PMID: 37626712 PMCID: PMC10452427 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11082215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple studies have demonstrated the importance of androgen receptor (AR) splice variants (SVs) in the progression of prostate cancer to the castration-resistant phenotype and their utility as a diagnostic. However, studies on AR expression in non-prostatic malignancies uncovered that AR-SVs are expressed in glioblastoma, breast, salivary, bladder, kidney, and liver cancers, where they have diverse roles in tumorigenesis. AR-SVs also have roles in non-cancer pathologies. In granulosa cells from women with polycystic ovarian syndrome, unique AR-SVs lead to an increase in androgen production. In patients with nonobstructive azoospermia, testicular Sertoli cells exhibit differential expression of AR-SVs, which is associated with impaired spermatogenesis. Moreover, AR-SVs have been identified in normal cells, including blood mononuclear cells, neuronal lipid rafts, and the placenta. The detection and characterization of AR-SVs in mammalian and non-mammalian species argue that AR-SV expression is evolutionarily conserved and that AR-SV-dependent signaling is a fundamental regulatory feature in multiple cellular contexts. These discoveries argue that alternative splicing of the AR transcript is a commonly used mechanism that leads to an expansion in the repertoire of signaling molecules needed in certain tissues. Various malignancies appropriate this mechanism of alternative AR splicing to acquire a proliferative and survival advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley D. Katleba
- Veterans Affairs-Northern California Health Care System, 10535 Hospital Way, Mather, CA 95655, USA; (K.D.K.); (P.M.G.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 1 Shields Avenue, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Paramita M. Ghosh
- Veterans Affairs-Northern California Health Care System, 10535 Hospital Way, Mather, CA 95655, USA; (K.D.K.); (P.M.G.)
- Department of Urologic Surgery, 4860 Y Street, UC Davis, Sacramento, CA 95718, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, 1 Shields Avenue, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Maria Mudryj
- Veterans Affairs-Northern California Health Care System, 10535 Hospital Way, Mather, CA 95655, USA; (K.D.K.); (P.M.G.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 1 Shields Avenue, UC Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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4
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Ji Y, Zhang R, Han X, Zhou J. Targeting the N-terminal domain of the androgen receptor: The effective approach in therapy of CRPC. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 247:115077. [PMID: 36587421 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.115077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is dominant in prostate cancer (PCa) pathology. Current therapeutic agents for advanced PCa include androgen synthesis inhibitors and AR antagonists that bind to the hormone binding pocket (HBP) at the ligand binding domain (LBD). However, AR amplification, AR splice variants (AR-Vs) expression, and intra-tumoral de novo synthesis of androgens result in the reactivation of AR signalling. The AR N-terminal domain (NTD) plays an essential role in AR transcriptional activity. The AR inhibitor targeting NTD could potentially block the activation of both full-length AR and AR-Vs, thus overcoming major resistance mechanisms to current treatments. This review discusses the progress of research in various NTD inhibitors and provides new insight into the development of AR-NTD inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Ji
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China; Drug Development and Innovation Center, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China
| | - Rongyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China; Drug Development and Innovation Center, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Han
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China; Drug Development and Innovation Center, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China
| | - Jinming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China; Drug Development and Innovation Center, College of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua, 321004, PR China.
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5
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Sadar MD. Drugging the Undruggable: Targeting the N-Terminal Domain of Nuclear Hormone Receptors. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 1390:311-326. [PMID: 36107327 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-11836-4_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This chapter focuses on the development of drugs targeting the N-terminal domain of nuclear hormone receptors, using progress with the androgen receptor as an example. Historically, development of therapies targeting nuclear hormone receptors has focused on the folded C-terminal ligand-binding domain. Therapies were traditionally not developed to target the intrinsically disordered N-terminal domain as it was considered "undruggable". Recent developments have now shown it is possible to direct therapies to the N-terminal domain. This chapter will provide an introduction of the structure and function of the domains of nuclear hormone receptors, followed by a discussion of the rationale supporting the development of N-terminal domain inhibitors. Chemistry and mechanisms of action of small molecule inhibitors will be described with emphasis on N-terminal domain inhibitors developed to the androgen receptor including those in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne D Sadar
- Canada's Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, British Columbia Cancer, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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6
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AR Structural Variants and Prostate Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 1390:195-211. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-11836-4_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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7
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Maylin ZR, Nicolescu RC, Pandha H, Asim M. Breaking androgen receptor addiction of prostate cancer by targeting different functional domains in the treatment of advanced disease. Transl Oncol 2021; 14:101115. [PMID: 33993099 PMCID: PMC8138777 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2021.101115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, treatment for castration-resistant prostate cancer has changed markedly, impacting symptom control and longevity for patients. However, a large proportion of cases progress despite androgen deprivation therapy and chemotherapy, while still being fit enough for several more lines of treatment. Overstimulation of the androgen receptor (AR) activity is the main driver of this cancer. Targeting biological functions of the AR or its co-regulators has proven very effective in this disease and led to the development of several highly effective drugs targeting the AR signalling axis. Drugs such as enzalutamide demonstrated that the improvement in anti-tumour efficacy is closely correlated with an affinity for the AR and its activity and have established the paradigm that AR remains activity in aggressive disease. However, as importantly, key insights into mechanisms of resistance are guiding the development of the next generation of AR-targeted drugs. This review outlines the historical development of these highly specific agents, their mechanism of action in the context of defective AR activity, and explores the potential for the upcoming next-generation AR inhibitors (ARI) for prostate cancer by targeting the alternative domains of AR, rather than by the conventional ligand-binding domain approach. There is huge potential in these approaches to develop new drugs with high clinical activity and further improve the outlook for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R Maylin
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, UK
| | | | - Hardev Pandha
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, UK
| | - Mohammad Asim
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, UK.
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8
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Chakravarty D, Huang L, Kahn M, Tewari AK. Immunotherapy for Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Current and Emerging Treatment Options. Urol Clin North Am 2020; 47:487-510. [PMID: 33008499 DOI: 10.1016/j.ucl.2020.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The advent of immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment. Prostate cancer has an immunosuppressive microenvironment and a low tumor mutation burden, resulting in low neoantigen expression. The consensus was that immunotherapy would be less effective in prostate cancer. However, recent studies have reported that prostate cancer does have a high number of DNA damage and repair gene defects. Immunotherapies that have been tested in prostate cancer so far have been mainly vaccines and checkpoint inhibitors. A combination of genomically targeted therapies, with approaches to alleviate immune response and thereby make the tumor microenvironment immunologically hot, is promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimple Chakravarty
- Department of Urology and the Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| | - Li Huang
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA; Department of Urology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Matthew Kahn
- Department of Urology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ashutosh K Tewari
- Department of Urology and the Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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9
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Gordon RE, Nemeth JF, Singh S, Lingham RB, Grewal IS. Harnessing SLE Autoantibodies for Intracellular Delivery of Biologic Therapeutics. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 39:298-310. [PMID: 32807530 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular delivery of therapeutic antibodies is highly desirable but remains a challenge for biomedical research and the pharmaceutical industry. Approximately two-thirds of disease-associated targets are found inside the cell. Difficulty blocking these targets with available drugs creates a need for technology to deliver highly specific therapeutic antibodies intracellularly. Historically, antibodies have not been believed to traverse the cell membrane and neutralize intracellular targets. Emerging evidence has revealed that anti-DNA autoantibodies found in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients can penetrate inside the cell. Harnessing this technology has the potential to accelerate the development of drugs against intracellular targets. Here, we dissect the mechanisms of the intracellular localization of SLE antibodies and discuss how to apply these insights to engineer successful cell-penetrating antibody drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata E Gordon
- Janssen Biotherapeutics, The Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, 1400 McKean Road, Spring House, PA 19477, USA
| | - Jennifer F Nemeth
- Janssen Biotherapeutics, The Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, 1400 McKean Road, Spring House, PA 19477, USA
| | - Sanjaya Singh
- Janssen Biotherapeutics, The Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, 1400 McKean Road, Spring House, PA 19477, USA
| | - Russell B Lingham
- Janssen Biotherapeutics, The Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, 1400 McKean Road, Spring House, PA 19477, USA
| | - Iqbal S Grewal
- Janssen Biotherapeutics, The Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, 1400 McKean Road, Spring House, PA 19477, USA.
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10
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Wu Y, Tang W, Cao Y, Jiang D, Zhao L, Zhao J, Zhang Y, Li C, Cheng C, Wang S, Yang F, Zhu X, Li G. A Cyclin D1-Specific Single-Chain Variable Fragment Antibody that Inhibits HepG2 Cell Growth and Proliferation. Biotechnol J 2020; 15:e1900430. [PMID: 32170989 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201900430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclin D1 is a key regulatory factor of the G1 to S transition during cell cycle progression. Aberrant cyclin D gene amplification and abnormal protein expression have been linked to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tumorigenesis. Intrabodies, effective anticancer therapies that specifically inhibit target protein function within all intracellular compartments, may block cyclin D1 function. Here, a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibody against cyclin D1 (ADκ) selected from a human semi-synthetic phage display scFv library is expressed in Escherichia coli as soluble ADκ. Purified ADκ specifically binds to recombinant and endogenous cyclin D1 with high affinity. To enable blocking of intracellular cyclin D1 activity, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal sequence is added to the ADκ sequence to encode anti-cyclin D1 intrabody ER-ADκ. Transfection of HepG2 cells with expression vector encoding ER-ADκ elicited intracellular ER-ADκ expression leading to cyclin D1 binding, significant G1 phase arrest, and apoptosis that are mechanistically tied to decreased intracellular phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein (Rb) levels. Meanwhile, ER-ADκ dramatically inhibited subcutaneous human HCC xenografts growth in nude mice in vivo after injection of tumors with expression vector encoding ER-ADκ. These results demonstrate the potential of intrabody-based cyclin D1 targeting therapy as a promising treatment for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wu
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China.,Cancer Research Institute, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, 256600, China
| | - Weiwei Tang
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China.,Cancer Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110042, China.,Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shenyang, 110042, China
| | - Yuhua Cao
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Dazhi Jiang
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Liangzhong Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China.,Department of Immunoassay Technology, Jilin Medical University, Jilin, 130021, China
| | - Jialiang Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China.,Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Chengjuan Li
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Cheng Cheng
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Shuai Wang
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Fang Yang
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Xun Zhu
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Guiying Li
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
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11
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Lu C, Brown LC, Antonarakis ES, Armstrong AJ, Luo J. Androgen receptor variant-driven prostate cancer II: advances in laboratory investigations. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2020; 23:381-397. [PMID: 32139878 PMCID: PMC7725416 DOI: 10.1038/s41391-020-0217-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Background: The androgen receptor (AR) is a key prostate cancer drug target.
Suppression of AR signaling mediated by the full-length AR (AR-FL) is the
therapeutic goal of all existing AR-directed therapies. AR-targeting agents
impart therapeutic benefit, but lead to AR aberrations that underlie disease
progression and therapeutic resistance. Among the AR aberrations specific to
castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), AR variants (AR-Vs) have
emerged as important indicators of disease progression and therapeutic
resistance. Methods: We conducted a systemic review of the literature focusing on recent
laboratory studies on AR-Vs following our last review article published in
2016. Topics ranged from measurement and detection, molecular origin,
regulation, genomic function, and preclinical therapeutic targeting of
AR-Vs. We provide expert opinions and perspectives on these topics. Results: Transcript sequences for 22 AR-Vs have been reported in the
literature. Different AR-Vs may arise through different mechanisms, and can
be regulated by splicing factors and dictated by genomic rearrangements, but
a low-androgen environment is a prerequisite for generation of AR-Vs. The
unique transcript structures allowed development of in-situ and in-solution
measurement and detection methods, including mRNA and protein detection, in
both tissue and blood specimens. AR variant-7 (AR-V7) remains the main
measurement target and the most extensively characterized AR-V. Although
AR-V7 co-exists with AR-FL, genomic functions mediated by AR-V7 do not
require the presence of AR-FL. The distinct cistromes and transcriptional
programs directed by AR-V7 and their co-regulators are consistent with
genomic features of progressive disease in a low-androgen environment.
Preclinical development of AR-V-directed agents currently focuses on
suppression of mRNA expression and protein degradation as well as targeting
of the amino-terminal domain. Conclusions: Current literature continues to support AR-Vs as biomarkers and
therapeutic targets in prostate cancer. Laboratory investigations reveal
both challenges and opportunities in targeting AR-Vs to overcome resistance
to current AR-directed therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changxue Lu
- Department of Urology, James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Landon C Brown
- Departments of Medicine, Surgery, and Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Divisions of Medical Oncology and Urology, Duke Cancer Institute Center for Prostate and Urologic Cancers, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Emmanuel S Antonarakis
- Department of Urology, James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Departments of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrew J Armstrong
- Departments of Medicine, Surgery, and Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Divisions of Medical Oncology and Urology, Duke Cancer Institute Center for Prostate and Urologic Cancers, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jun Luo
- Department of Urology, James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,Departments of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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12
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Sadar MD. Discovery of drugs that directly target the intrinsically disordered region of the androgen receptor. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:551-560. [PMID: 32100577 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1732920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and regions (IDRs) lack stable three-dimensional structure making drug discovery challenging. A validated therapeutic target for diseases such as prostate cancer is the androgen receptor (AR) which has a disordered amino-terminal domain (NTD) that contains all of its transcriptional activity. Drug discovery against the AR-NTD is of intense interest as a potential treatment for disease such as advanced prostate cancer that is driven by truncated constitutively active splice variants of AR that lack the C-terminal ligand-binding domain (LBD).Areas covered: This article presents an overview of the relevance of AR and its intrinsically disordered NTD as a drug target. AR structure and approaches to blocking AR transcriptional activity are discussed. The discovery of small molecules, including the libraries used, proven binders to the AR-NTD, and site of interaction of these small molecules in the AR-NTD are presented along with discussion of the Phase I clinical trial.Expert opinion: The lack of drugs in the clinic that directly bind IDPs/IDRs reflects the difficulty of targeting these proteins and obtaining specificity. However, it may also point to an inappropriateness of too closely borrowing concepts and resources from drug discovery to folded proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne D Sadar
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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13
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Regression of castration-resistant prostate cancer by a novel compound QW07 targeting androgen receptor N-terminal domain. Cell Biol Toxicol 2020; 36:399-416. [PMID: 32002708 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-020-09511-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) via surgical or chemical castration frequently fails to halt lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which is induced by multiple mechanisms involving constitutive androgen receptor (AR) splice variants, AR mutation, and/or de novo androgen synthesis. The AR N-terminal domain (NTD) possesses most transcriptional activity and is proposed as a potential target for CRPC drug development. We constructed a screening system targeting AR-NTD transcription activity to screening a compound library and identified a novel small molecule compound named QW07. The function evaluation and mechanism investigation of QW07 were carried out in vitro and in vivo. QW07 bound to AR-NTD directly, blocked the transactivation of AR-NTD, blocked interactions between co-regulatory proteins and androgen response elements (AREs), inhibited the expression of genes downstream of AR, and inhibited prostate cancer growth in vitro and in vivo. QW07 was demonstrated as an AR-NTD-specific antagonist with the potential to inhibit both canonical and variant-mediated AR signaling to regress the CRPC xenografts and is proposed as a lead compound for a specific antagonist targeting AR-NTD.
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14
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Gaston J, Maestrali N, Lalle G, Gagnaire M, Masiero A, Dumas B, Dabdoubi T, Radošević K, Berne PF. Intracellular delivery of therapeutic antibodies into specific cells using antibody-peptide fusions. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18688. [PMID: 31822703 PMCID: PMC6904672 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55091-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of their favorable properties as macromolecular drugs, antibodies are a very successful therapeutic modality for interfering with disease-relevant targets in the extracellular space or at the cell membrane. However, a large number of diseases involve cytosolic targets and designing antibodies able to efficiently reach intracellular compartments would expand the antibody-tractable conditions. Here, we genetically fused cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) at various positions to an antibody targeting cancer cells, evaluated the developability features of the resulting antibody-peptide fusions and the ability of selected constructs to reach the cytosol. We first determined positions in the IgG structure that were permissive to CPP incorporation without destabilizing the antibody. Fusing CPPs to the C-terminus of the light chain and either before or after the hinge had the least effect on antibody developability features. These constructs were further evaluated for cell penetration efficiency. Two out of five tested CPPs significantly enhanced antibody penetration into the cytosol, in particular when fused before or after the hinge. Finally, we demonstrate that specific antibody binding to the cell surface target is necessary for efficient cell penetration of the CPP-antibody fusions. This study provides a solid basis for further exploration of therapeutic antibodies for intracellular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Gaston
- Yubsis, 4 rue Pierre Fontaine, 91000, Evry, France
| | - Nicolas Maestrali
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Guilhem Lalle
- Department of Immunology, Virology and Inflammation, UMR INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre Léon Bérard, Labex DEVweCAN, 693743, Lyon, France
| | - Marie Gagnaire
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Alessandro Masiero
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Bruno Dumas
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Tarik Dabdoubi
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France
| | - Katarina Radošević
- Sanofi R&D, Biologics Research, 13 Quai Jules Guesde, 94400, Vitry-sur-Seine, France.
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15
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Su B, Zhang L, Liu S, Chen X, Zhang W. GABARAPL1 Promotes AR+ Prostate Cancer Growth by Increasing FL-AR/AR-V Transcription Activity and Nuclear Translocation. Front Oncol 2019; 9:1254. [PMID: 31803623 PMCID: PMC6872515 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The next generation Androgen receptor (AR)-targeted therapies are now in widespread clinical use and prolong prostate cancer (CaP) patient survival. However, the therapies are not curative due to diverse range of resistance mechanisms. AR variants (AR-V), one major mechanism of resistance, has recently gained momentum. Here, we found that GABARAPL1 knockdown inhibits the growth of AR-positive LNCaP and CWR22rv1 CaP cells in vitro and in vivo, decreases AR/AR-V transcription activity and AR nuclear translocation. Pulldown assay shows that both of Full-length (FL)-AR and AR-V were able to interact with GABARAPL1, suggesting that GABARAPL1 may play its role through directly scaffolding AR. The further analysis from Oncomine database showed that negative correlation between GABARAPL1 expression and 5-years survival in CaP cases. Our findings have identified GABARAPL1 as critical regulator of FL-AR/AR-V, suggesting the potential benefit of targeting GABARAPL1 to treat AR-positive CaP that is resistant to next generation AR inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Su
- Xinxiang Key Lab of Translational Cancer Research, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Lijuan Zhang
- Xinxiang Key Lab of Translational Cancer Research, The Third Affiliated Hospital, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Shenglin Liu
- Biomedical Research Institute, Shenzhen Peking University - The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Medical Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaofan Chen
- Biomedical Research Institute, Shenzhen Peking University - The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Medical Center, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Biomedical Research Institute, Shenzhen Peking University - The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Medical Center, Shenzhen, China
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16
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Zamagni A, Cortesi M, Zanoni M, Tesei A. Non-nuclear AR Signaling in Prostate Cancer. Front Chem 2019; 7:651. [PMID: 31616657 PMCID: PMC6775214 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the key role played by androgen receptor (AR) in tumor cell aggressiveness and prostate cancer (PCa) progression, its function in the tumor microenvironment (TME) is still controversial. Increasing studies highlight the crucial role played by TME modulation in treatment outcome and tumor cell spreading. In this context, targeting specific constituents of the TME could be considered an alternative approach to classic treatments directed against cancer cells. Currently, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is a routinely adopted strategy in the management of PCa, with initial success, and consecutive fail. A possible justification to this is the fact that ADT aims to target all the transcription/translation-related activities of AR, which are typical of tumor epithelial cells. Less is still known about side effects of ADT on TME. Cancer Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs), for example, express a classic AR, mostly confined in the extra-nuclear portion of the cell. In CAFs ADT exerts a plethora of non-transcriptional effects, depending by the protein partner linked to AR, leading to cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. In recent years, substantial progress in the structure-function relationships of AR, identification of its binding partners and function of protein complexes including AR have improved our knowledge of its signaling axis. Important AR non-genomic effects and lots of its cytoplasmatic binding partners have been described, pointing out a fine control of AR non-genomic pathways. Accordingly, new AR inhibitors have been designed and are currently under investigation. Prompt development of new approaches to target AR or block recruitment of its signaling effectors, or co-activators, is urgently needed. The present review takes an in-depth look at current literature, furnishing an exhaustive state-of-the-art overview of the non-genomic role of AR in PCa, with particular emphasis on its involvement in TME biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Zamagni
- Biosciences Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST), IRCCS, Meldola, Italy
| | - Michela Cortesi
- Biosciences Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST), IRCCS, Meldola, Italy
| | - Michele Zanoni
- Biosciences Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST), IRCCS, Meldola, Italy
| | - Anna Tesei
- Biosciences Laboratory, Istituto Scientifico Romagnolo per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori (IRST), IRCCS, Meldola, Italy
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