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Inman JL, Wu Y, Chen L, Brydon E, Ghosh D, Wan KH, De Chant J, Obst-Huebl L, Nakamura K, Ralston CY, Celniker SE, Mao JH, Zwart PH, Holman HYN, Chang H, Brown JB, Snijders AM. Long-term, non-invasive FTIR detection of low-dose ionizing radiation exposure. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6119. [PMID: 38480827 PMCID: PMC10937999 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56491-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Non-invasive methods of detecting radiation exposure show promise to improve upon current approaches to biological dosimetry in ease, speed, and accuracy. Here we developed a pipeline that employs Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy in the mid-infrared spectrum to identify a signature of low dose ionizing radiation exposure in mouse ear pinnae over time. Mice exposed to 0.1 to 2 Gy total body irradiation were repeatedly measured by FTIR at the stratum corneum of the ear pinnae. We found significant discriminative power for all doses and time-points out to 90 days after exposure. Classification accuracy was maximized when testing 14 days after exposure (specificity > 0.9 with a sensitivity threshold of 0.9) and dropped by roughly 30% sensitivity at 90 days. Infrared frequencies point towards biological changes in DNA conformation, lipid oxidation and accumulation and shifts in protein secondary structure. Since only hundreds of samples were used to learn the highly discriminative signature, developing human-relevant diagnostic capabilities is likely feasible and this non-invasive procedure points toward rapid, non-invasive, and reagent-free biodosimetry applications at population scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Inman
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Yulun Wu
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Department of Statistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Liang Chen
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Ella Brydon
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Dhruba Ghosh
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
| | - Kenneth H Wan
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jared De Chant
- Accelerator Technology and Applied Physics Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Lieselotte Obst-Huebl
- Accelerator Technology and Applied Physics Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Kei Nakamura
- Accelerator Technology and Applied Physics Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Corie Y Ralston
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Susan E Celniker
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jian-Hua Mao
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Peter H Zwart
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Hoi-Ying N Holman
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Hang Chang
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - James B Brown
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
- Department of Statistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Antoine M Snijders
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
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2
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Balajee AS, Livingston GK, Escalona MB, Ryan TL, Goans RE, Iddins CJ. Cytogenetic follow-up studies on humans with internal and external exposure to ionizing radiation. JOURNAL OF RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION 2021; 41:S578-S601. [PMID: 34233319 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6498/ac125a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cells exposed to ionizing radiation have a wide spectrum of DNA lesions that include DNA single-strand breaks, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), oxidative base damage and DNA-protein crosslinks. Among them, DSB is the most critical lesion, which when mis-repaired leads to unstable and stable chromosome aberrations. Currently, chromosome aberration analysis is the preferred method for biological monitoring of radiation-exposed humans. Stable chromosome aberrations, such as inversions and balanced translocations, persist in the peripheral blood lymphocytes of radiation-exposed humans for several years and, therefore, are potentially useful tools to prognosticate the health risks of radiation exposure, particularly in the hematopoietic system. In this review, we summarize the cytogenetic follow-up studies performed by REAC/TS (Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training site, Oak Ridge, USA) on humans exposed to internal and external radiation. In the light of our observations as well as the data existing in the literature, this review attempts to highlight the importance of follow-up studies for predicting the extent of genomic instability and its impact on delayed health risks in radiation-exposed victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adayabalam S Balajee
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Gordon K Livingston
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Maria B Escalona
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Terri L Ryan
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Ronald E Goans
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Carol J Iddins
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Centre/Training Site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
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Abstract
The dicentric chromosome (DC) assay accurately quantifies exposure to radiation; however, manual and semi-automated assignment of DCs has limited its use for a potential large-scale radiation incident. The Automated Dicentric Chromosome Identifier and Dose Estimator (ADCI) software automates unattended DC detection and determines radiation exposures, fulfilling IAEA criteria for triage biodosimetry. This study evaluates the throughput of high-performance ADCI (ADCI-HT) to stratify exposures of populations in 15 simulated population scale radiation exposures. ADCI-HT streamlines dose estimation using a supercomputer by optimal hierarchical scheduling of DC detection for varying numbers of samples and metaphase cell images in parallel on multiple processors. We evaluated processing times and accuracy of estimated exposures across census-defined populations. Image processing of 1744 samples on 16,384 CPUs required 1 h 11 min 23 s and radiation dose estimation based on DC frequencies required 32 sec. Processing of 40,000 samples at 10 exposures from five laboratories required 25 h and met IAEA criteria (dose estimates were within 0.5 Gy; median = 0.07). Geostatistically interpolated radiation exposure contours of simulated nuclear incidents were defined by samples exposed to clinically relevant exposure levels (1 and 2 Gy). Analysis of all exposed individuals with ADCI-HT required 0.6–7.4 days, depending on the population density of the simulation.
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Herate C, Sabatier L. Retrospective biodosimetry techniques: Focus on cytogenetics assays for individuals exposed to ionizing radiation. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2020; 783:108287. [PMID: 32192645 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2019.108287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In the absence of physical data, biodosimetry tools are required for fast dose and risk assessment in the event of radiological or nuclear mass accidents or attacks to triage exposed humans and take immediate medical countermeasures. Biodosimetry tools have mostly been developed for retrospective dose assessment and the follow-up of victims of irradiation. Among them, cytogenetics analyses, to reveal chromosome damage, are the most developed and allow the determination of doses from blood samples as low as 100 mGy. Various cytogenetic tests have already allowed retrospective dose assessment of Chernobyl liquidators and military personnel exposed to nuclear tests after decades. In this review, we discuss the properties of various biodosimetry techniques, such as their sensitivity and limitations as a function of the time from exposure, using multiple examples of nuclear catastrophes or working exposure. Among them, chromosome FISH hybridization, which reveals chromosome translocations, is the most reliable due to the persistence of translocations for decades, whereas dicentric chromosome and micronuclei assays allow rapid and accurate dose assessment a short time after exposure. Both need to be adjusted through mathematical algorithms for retrospective analyses, accounting for the time since exposure and the victims' age. The goal for the future will be to better model chromosome damage, reduce the time to result, and develop new complementary biodosimetry approaches, such as mutation signatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Herate
- PROCyTox, French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), University Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - L Sabatier
- PROCyTox, French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), University Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.
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5
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Ryan TL, Escalona MB, Smith TL, Albanese J, Iddins CJ, Balajee AS. Optimization and validation of automated dicentric chromosome analysis for radiological/nuclear triage applications. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2019; 847:503087. [PMID: 31699339 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2019.503087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Dicentric Chromosome Assay (DCA) is the most preferred cytogenetic technique for absorbed radiation dose assessment in exposed humans. However, DCA is somewhat impractical for triage application owing to its labor intensive and time consuming nature. Although lymphocyte culture for 48 h in vitro is inevitable for DCA, manual scoring of dicentric chromosomes (DCs) requires an additional time of 24-48 h, making the overall turnaround time of 72-96 h for dose estimation. To accelerate the speed of DC analysis for dose estimation, an automated tool was optimized and validated for triage mode of scoring. Several image training files were created to improve the specificity of automated DC analysis algorithm. Accuracy and efficiency of the automated (unsupervised) DC scoring was compared with the semi-automated scoring that involved human verification and correction of DCs (elimination of false positives and inclusion of true positives). DC scoring was performed by both automated and semi-automated modes for different doses of X-rays and γ-rays (0 Gy-5 Gy). Biodoses estimated from the frequencies of DCs detected by both automated (unsupervised) and semi-automated (supervised) scoring modes were grossly similar to the actual delivered doses in the range of 0.5 to 3 Gy of low LET radiation. We suggest that the automated DC tool can be effectively used for large scale radiological/nuclear incidents where a rapid segregation is essential for prioritizing moderately or severely exposed humans to receive appropriate medical countermeasures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terri L Ryan
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site, Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Maria B Escalona
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site, Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Tammy L Smith
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site, Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Joseph Albanese
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Carol J Iddins
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site, Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Adayabalam S Balajee
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training Site, Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA.
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6
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Guérin TM, Béneut C, Barinova N, López V, Lazar-Stefanita L, Deshayes A, Thierry A, Koszul R, Dubrana K, Marcand S. Condensin-Mediated Chromosome Folding and Internal Telomeres Drive Dicentric Severing by Cytokinesis. Mol Cell 2019; 75:131-144.e3. [PMID: 31204167 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2019.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, dicentric chromosomes stemming from telomere fusions preferentially break at the fusion. This process restores a normal karyotype and protects chromosomes from the detrimental consequences of accidental fusions. Here, we address the molecular basis of this rescue pathway. We observe that tandem arrays tightly bound by the telomere factor Rap1 or a heterologous high-affinity DNA binding factor are sufficient to establish breakage hotspots, mimicking telomere fusions within dicentrics. We also show that condensins generate forces sufficient to rapidly refold dicentrics prior to breakage by cytokinesis and are essential to the preferential breakage at telomere fusions. Thus, the rescue of fused telomeres results from a condensin- and Rap1-driven chromosome folding that favors fusion entrapment where abscission takes place. Because a close spacing between the DNA-bound Rap1 molecules is essential to this process, Rap1 may act by stalling condensins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Guérin
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Claire Béneut
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Natalja Barinova
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Virginia López
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Luciana Lazar-Stefanita
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Régulation Spatiale des Génomes, CNRS UMR 3525, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Alice Deshayes
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Agnès Thierry
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Régulation Spatiale des Génomes, CNRS UMR 3525, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Romain Koszul
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Régulation Spatiale des Génomes, CNRS UMR 3525, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Karine Dubrana
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France
| | - Stéphane Marcand
- CEA Paris-Saclay, Unité Stabilité Génétique Cellules Souches et Radiations, INSERM U1274, Université de Paris, Université Paris-Saclay, Fontenay-aux-roses, France.
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7
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Ryan TL, Pantelias AG, Terzoudi GI, Pantelias GE, Balajee AS. Use of human lymphocyte G0 PCCs to detect intra- and inter-chromosomal aberrations for early radiation biodosimetry and retrospective assessment of radiation-induced effects. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216081. [PMID: 31059552 PMCID: PMC6502328 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A sensitive biodosimetry tool is required for rapid individualized dose estimation and risk assessment in the case of radiological or nuclear mass casualty scenarios to prioritize exposed humans for immediate medical countermeasures to reduce radiation related injuries or morbidity risks. Unlike the conventional Dicentric Chromosome Assay (DCA), which takes about 3–4 days for radiation dose estimation, cell fusion mediated Premature Chromosome Condensation (PCC) technique in G0 lymphocytes can be rapidly performed for radiation dose assessment within 6–8 hrs of sample receipt by alleviating the need for ex vivo lymphocyte proliferation for 48 hrs. Despite this advantage, the PCC technique has not yet been fully exploited for radiation biodosimetry. Realizing the advantage of G0 PCC technique that can be instantaneously applied to unstimulated lymphocytes, we evaluated the utility of G0 PCC technique in detecting ionizing radiation (IR) induced stable and unstable chromosomal aberrations for biodosimetry purposes. Our study demonstrates that PCC coupled with mFISH and mBAND techniques can efficiently detect both numerical and structural chromosome aberrations at the intra- and inter-chromosomal levels in unstimulated T- and B-lymphocytes. Collectively, we demonstrate that the G0 PCC technique has the potential for development as a biodosimetry tool for detecting unstable chromosome aberrations (chromosome fragments and dicentric chromosomes) for early radiation dose estimation and stable chromosome exchange events (translocations) for retrospective monitoring of individualized health risks in unstimulated lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terri L. Ryan
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Antonio G. Pantelias
- Health Physics, Radiobiology & Cytogenetics Laboratory, Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia I. Terzoudi
- Health Physics, Radiobiology & Cytogenetics Laboratory, Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece
| | - Gabriel E. Pantelias
- Health Physics, Radiobiology & Cytogenetics Laboratory, Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Ag. Paraskevi, Athens, Greece
| | - Adayabalam S. Balajee
- Cytogenetic Biodosimetry Laboratory, Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training site, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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8
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Balajee AS, Escalona M, Iddins CJ, Shuryak I, Livingston GK, Hanlon D, Dainiak N. Development of electronic training and telescoring tools to increase the surge capacity of dicentric chromosome scorers for radiological/nuclear mass casualty incidents. Appl Radiat Isot 2018; 144:111-117. [PMID: 30572199 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Dicentric chromosome assay (DCA) is most frequently used for estimating the absorbed radiation dose in the peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans after occupational or incidental radiation exposure. DCA is considered to be the "gold standard" for estimating the absorbed radiation dose because the dicentric chromosome formation is fairly specific to ionizing radiation exposure and its baseline frequency is extremely low in non-exposed humans. However, performance of DCA for biodosimetry is labor intensive and time-consuming making its application impractical for radiological/nuclear mass casualty incidents. Realizing the critical need for rapid dose estimation particularly after radiological/nuclear disaster events, several laboratories have initiated efforts to automate some of the procedural steps involved in DCA. Although metaphase image capture and dicentric chromosome analysis have been automated using commercially available platforms, lack or an insufficient number of these platforms may pose a serious bottleneck when hundreds and thousands of samples need to be analyzed for rapid dose estimation. To circumvent this problem, a web-based approach for telescoring was initiated by our laboratory, which enabled the cytogeneticists around the globe to analyze and score digital images. To further increase the surge capacity of dicentric scorers, we recently initiated a dicentric training and scoring exercise involving a total of 50 volunteers at all academic levels without any prerequisite for experience in radiation cytogenetics. Out of the 50 volunteers enrolled thus far, only one outlier was found who overestimated the absorbed radiation dose. Our approach of training the civilians in dicentric chromosome analysis holds great promise for increasing the surge capacity of dicentric chromosome scorers for a rapid biodosimetry in the case of mass casualty scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adayabalam S Balajee
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center and Training Site, Cytogenetics Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1299, Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
| | - Maria Escalona
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center and Training Site, Cytogenetics Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1299, Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Carol J Iddins
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center and Training Site, Cytogenetics Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1299, Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Igor Shuryak
- Center for Radiological Research, Department of Radiation Oncology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Gordon K Livingston
- Radiation Emergency Assistance Center and Training Site, Cytogenetics Biodosimetry Laboratory, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1299, Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Don Hanlon
- Department of Health, Energy and Environment-Health, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Nicholas Dainiak
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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