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Yang TX, Allen RJ, Waterman AH, Graham AJ, Su XM, Gao Y. Exploring techniques for encoding spoken instructions in working memory: a comparison of verbal rehearsal, motor imagery, self-enactment and action observation. Memory 2024; 32:41-54. [PMID: 37910587 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2023.2273763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Encoding and recalling spoken instructions is subject to working memory capacity limits. Previous research suggests action-based encoding facilitates instruction recall, but has not directly compared benefits across different types of action-based techniques. The current study addressed this in two experiments with young adults. In Experiment 1, participants listened to instructional sequences containing four action-object pairs, and encoded these instructions using either a motor imagery or verbal rehearsal technique, followed by recall via oral repetition or enactment. Memory for instructions was better when participants used a motor imagery technique during encoding, and when recalling the instructions by enactment. The advantage of using a motor imagery technique was present in both verbal and enacted recall. In Experiment 2, participants encoded spoken instructions whilst implementing one of four techniques (verbal rehearsal, motor imagery, observation of others' actions or self-enactment), and then recalled the instructions by oral repetition or enactment. For both verbal and enacted recall, memory for instructions was least accurate in the rehearsal condition, while the other encoding conditions did not differ from each other. These novel findings indicate similar benefits of imagining, observation and execution of actions in encoding spoken instructions, and enrich current understanding of action-based benefits in working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Xiao Yang
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | | | | | - Xiao-Min Su
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Gao
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Grave J, Madeira N, Morais S, Rodrigues P, Soares SC. Emotional interference and attentional control in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: The special case of neutral faces. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2023; 81:101892. [PMID: 37429124 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (SSD) are characterized by impaired emotion processing and attention. SSD patients are more sensitive to the presence of emotional distractors. But despite growing interest on the emotion-attention interplay, emotional interference in SSD is far from fully understood. Moreover, research to date has not established the link between emotional interference and attentional control in SSD. This study thus aimed to investigate the effects of facial expression and attentional control in SSD, by manipulating perceptual load. METHODS Twenty-two SSD patients and 22 healthy controls performed a target-letter discrimination task with task-irrelevant angry, happy, and neutral faces. Target-letter was presented among homogenous (low load) or heterogenous (high load) distractor-letters. Accuracy and RT were analysed using (generalized) linear mixed-effect models. RESULTS Accuracy was significantly lower in SSD patients than controls, regardless of perceptual load and facial expression. Concerning RT, SSD patients were significantly slower than controls in the presence of neutral faces, but only at high load. No group differences were observed for angry and happy faces. LIMITATIONS Heterogeneity of SSD, small sample size, lack of clinical control group, medication. CONCLUSIONS One possible explanation is that neutral faces captured exogenous attention to a greater extent in SSD, thus challenging attentional control in perceptually demanding conditions. This may reflect abnormal processing of neutral faces in SSD. If replicated, these findings will help to understand the interplay between exogenous attention, attentional control, and emotion processing in SSD, which may unravel the mechanism underlying socioemotional dysfunction in SSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Grave
- William James Center for Research (WJCR-Aveiro), Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Center for Health Technology and Services Research (CINTESIS@RISE), Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Madeira
- Psychiatry Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Psychological Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; CIBIT-Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; CACC-Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sofia Morais
- Psychiatry Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Psychological Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; CIBIT-Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; CACC-Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra, 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Paulo Rodrigues
- Department of Psychology and Education, University of Beira Interior, Estrada do Sineiro, 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Sandra C Soares
- William James Center for Research (WJCR-Aveiro), Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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Xie T, Wang L. EXPRESS: Encoding Arm and Leg Movements in the Same or Opposite Direction. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 76:1368-1378. [PMID: 35771090 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221113427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This study examined whether working memory performance for arm and leg movements differed when encoding in the same or opposite direction (relative to the observed direction) and which direction was better for encoding these two kinds of movements. The results showed that encoding direction regulated the comparison between arm and leg movements in working memory performance. In the same-direction encoding condition, arm movements performed better than leg movements, whereas in the opposite-direction encoding condition, arm movements performed worse. Additionally, arm movements performed better when they were encoded in the same direction, while encoding leg movements in the same direction did not differ from encoding them in the opposite direction. Therefore, we should move appropriate body parts for the same and opposite learning directions. The same direction is suitable for learning arm movements but not leg movements; the opposite direction is suitable for learning leg movements but not arm movements. We should also consider the appropriate learning direction for arm movements rather than leg movements. Arm movements are encoded more effectively in the same direction than in the opposite direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Xie
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China 47821
| | - Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China 47821
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Wang L, Xie T, Ma H, Xu M, Xie X. Subject-performed task effect on working memory performance in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res 2022; 15:1698-1709. [PMID: 35298088 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A previous study found that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have better recall when they perform instructions (subject-performed task [SPT]) than when they passively hear instructions (verbal task [VT]) in a working memory task for instructions, an effect that is called the SPT effect. This study explored whether the SPT effect exhibited by ASD children is caused by the movement component or by processing materials twice. More importantly, this study explored whether intelligence influences the SPT effect exhibited by ASD children. ASD children with three levels of intelligence (N = 56) and a control group, children with intellectual disability (ID) who had low intelligence but did not have ASD (N = 21), were asked to perform working memory tasks for instructions under VT, SPT and repeated (hearing the instruction twice) conditions. No significant difference in performance was observed between the VT and repeated conditions, regardless of the child's level of intelligence. ASD children with lower-middle intelligence exhibited a smaller SPT effect than ASD children with upper-middle intelligence. Critically, while ASD children with low intelligence did not exhibit the SPT effect, an ID group with equivalent low intelligence did show this effect. Therefore, these results show that the SPT effect for ASD children is caused by the movement component and is uniquely associated with a certain level of intelligence, namely, lower middle and higher levels of intelligence. LAY SUMMARY: In ASD children, the benefit of physically performing instructions for working memory performance is uniquely associated with a certain level of intelligence. Only ASD children with lower-middle intelligence (and higher) benefit from physically performing instructions, and higher intelligence increases this benefit; ASD children with low intelligence do not show this benefit. This benefit in ASD children is attributed to the additional motoric code generated by physical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Tingting Xie
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Huan Ma
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | - Miao Xu
- No. 6 Hospital of Changchun, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaochun Xie
- School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
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Yang TX, Su XM, Allen RJ, Ye Z, Jia LX. Improving older adults' ability to follow instructions: benefits of actions at encoding and retrieval in working memory. Memory 2022; 30:610-620. [PMID: 35139752 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2022.2035768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The ability to follow instructions is critical for learning new skills and may support successful aging. Recent evidence indicates a close link between following instructions and working memory, and that action-based processing at encoding and retrieval can improve this ability. In this study, we examined the ability to follow instructions and the benefits of action-based processing in young and older adults. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with spoken or silent demonstrated instructions, then recalled them by oral repetition or physical enactment. Older adults produced fewer correct responses in all conditions. Both age groups were better at recalling demonstrated than spoken instructions in the verbal but not the enacted recall condition. Older adults also benefited from enacted recall relative to verbal recall, but to a smaller extent than younger adults. In Experiment 2, the additional benefit of dual modalities (spoken instructions with simultaneous demonstration) relative to single modality presentation (spoken instructions, or silent demonstration) was examined. Both age groups showed superior performance in dual modality conditions relative to spoken instructions when using verbal recall. These findings suggest that although following instruction ability appears to decline with age, older adults can still benefit from action at encoding and retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Xiao Yang
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Min Su
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | | | - Zheng Ye
- Institute of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu-Xia Jia
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, The University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Li G, Allen RJ, Hitch GJ, Baddeley AD. EXPRESS: Translating words into actions in working memory: the role of spatial-motoric coding. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2022; 75:1959-1975. [PMID: 35084263 PMCID: PMC9424718 DOI: 10.1177/17470218221079848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Research from a working memory perspective on the encoding and temporary
maintenance of sequential instructions has established a consistent advantage
for enacted over verbal recall. This is thought to reflect action planning for
anticipated movements at the response phase. We describe five experiments
investigating this, comparing verbal and enacted recall of a series of
action–object pairings under different potentially disruptive concurrent task
conditions, all requiring repetitive movements. A general advantage for enacted
recall was observed across experiments, together with a tendency for concurrent
action to impair sequence memory performance. The enacted recall advantage was
reduced by concurrent action for both fine and gross concurrent movement with
the degree of disruption influenced by both the complexity and the familiarity
of the movement. The results are discussed in terms of an output buffer store of
limited capacity capable of holding motoric plans for anticipated action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangzheng Li
- School of Education Science, Jiangsu Normal University, China 12675
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Kwok SC, Xu X, Duan W, Wang X, Tang Y, Allé MC, Berna F. Autobiographical and episodic memory deficits in schizophrenia: A narrative review and proposed agenda for research. Clin Psychol Rev 2021; 83:101956. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Yang TX, Allen RJ, Waterman AH, Zhang SY, Su XM, Chan RCK. Comparing motor imagery and verbal rehearsal strategies in children's ability to follow spoken instructions. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 203:105033. [PMID: 33278801 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.105033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The ability to follow spoken instructions is critical for children's learning in school and relies on the storage and processing of information in working memory. This study compared the effects of two encoding strategies (motor imagery and verbal rehearsal) on children's ability to follow spoken instructions in a working memory paradigm. A total of 146 children aged 7-12 years completed an instruction span task. In this task, children listened to a series of action-object commands and encoded them by either motor imagery or verbal rehearsal. They then attempted to recall the sequence in serial order by either enacted recall or verbal recall. Overall, children's ability to follow spoken instructions increased with age. In all age groups, children showed superior recall of instructions when they imagined the actions compared with verbal rehearsal of the actions during encoding, and this benefit of motor imagery was similar for verbal recall and enacted recall. Younger children reported motor imagery as more helpful than verbal rehearsal for remembering instructions, whereas older children considered verbal rehearsal as more useful. The study provides novel evidence for motor imagery as a superior strategy (relative to verbal rehearsal) for remembering spoken instructions in school-age children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Xiao Yang
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Richard J Allen
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | | | - Shi-Yu Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao-Min Su
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Raymond C K Chan
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Forward and backward recall of serial actions: Exploring the temporal dynamics of working memory for instruction. Mem Cognit 2019; 47:279-291. [PMID: 30284189 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-018-0865-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The ability to flexibly retrieve and implement sequences of actions is essential to motor learning and planning. Recent research has indicated that serial memory for instructions is influenced by presentation modality (spoken vs. visual demonstration) and recall modality (verbal vs. enacted recall). The present study extended this work by investigating the impact of recall direction (forward vs. backward), in addition to that of presentation and recall modality, on working memory for instruction sequences in healthy young adults. Experiment 1 (N = 24) showed that adults were more accurate in backward than forward verbal recall following spoken instructions. In contrast, enacted recall was not influenced by recall direction. Experiment 2 (N = 24) used visual demonstration of instruction sequences and found similar performance levels in forward and backward recall. Experiment 3 (N = 24) replicated the findings from Experiment 1 and 2, along with the previous observation of an advantage for demonstrated over spoken presentation. In addition, the beneficial effects of enacted recall and visual demonstration also emerged in an analysis of response times, specifically in reduced preparation and recall duration. Demonstrated instructions improved maintenance of all items while backward recall enhanced memory of later items in the sequence. These findings provide new insights into the cognitive processes and temporal dynamics of working memory for serial actions and instructions.
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