1
|
Semenovich DS, Zorova LD, Abramicheva PA, Andrianova NV, Elchaninov AV, Petrukhina AS, Pevzner IB, Manskikh VN, Zorov DB, Plotnikov EY. Impact of Intermittent Fasting and Dietary Restriction on Redox State, Energetic Metabolism, and Liver Injury in Common Bile Duct Ligation Model. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:835. [PMID: 39061903 PMCID: PMC11273810 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13070835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to test whether we can treat cholestasis with dietary approaches applied after the onset of the disease. The effects of intermittent fasting and dietary restriction on liver damage caused by common bile duct ligation (BDL) in rats were studied, with particular attention paid to changes in the activity of enzymes of energy metabolism and antioxidant protection. Morphological changes in liver tissue and serum markers of liver damage were assessed in rats with BDL kept for one month on ad libitum diet, intermittent fasting, or 35% dietary restriction. We studied parameters of glucose metabolism (activity of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis enzymes), TCA cycle, and indicators of oxidative stress and redox status of the liver tissue. Dietary restriction resulted in an increase in gluconeogenesis activity, antioxidant capacity, and autophagy activation. When implemented after BDL, none of the dietary restriction protocols reduced the level of oxidative stress, detrimental morphological and biochemical alterations, or the fibrosis progression. Thus, under severe damage and oxidative stress developing in cholestasis, dietary restrictions are not hepatoprotective and can only be used in a pre-treatment mode.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry S. Semenovich
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
| | - Ljubava D. Zorova
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Polina A. Abramicheva
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
| | - Nadezda V. Andrianova
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
- Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey V. Elchaninov
- Avtsyn Research Institute of Human Morphology of Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Petrovsky National Research Centre of Surgery”, 117418 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Aleksandra S. Petrukhina
- K.I. Skryabin Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology, 109472 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Irina B. Pevzner
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vasily N. Manskikh
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
| | - Dmitry B. Zorov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Egor Y. Plotnikov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia; (D.S.S.); (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (N.V.A.); (I.B.P.); (V.N.M.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center for Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li T, Hasan MN, Gu L. Bile acids regulation of cellular stress responses in liver physiology and diseases. EGASTROENTEROLOGY 2024; 2:e100074. [PMID: 39027418 PMCID: PMC11257078 DOI: 10.1136/egastro-2024-100074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Bile acids are physiological detergents and signalling molecules that are critically implicated in liver health and diseases. Dysregulation of bile acid homeostasis alters cell function and causes cell injury in chronic liver diseases. Therapeutic agents targeting bile acid synthesis, transport and signalling hold great potential for treatment of chronic liver diseases. The broad cellular and physiological impacts of pharmacological manipulations of bile acid metabolism are still incompletely understood. Recent research has discovered new links of bile acid signalling to the regulation of autophagy and lysosome biology, redox homeostasis and endoplasmic reticulum stress. These are well-conserved mechanisms that allow cells to adapt to nutrient and organelle stresses and play critical roles in maintaining cellular integrity and promoting survival. However, dysregulation of these cellular pathways is often observed in chronic liver diseases, which exacerbates cellular dysfunction to contribute to disease pathogenesis. Therefore, identification of these novel links has significantly advanced our knowledge of bile acid biology and physiology, which is needed to understand the contributions of bile acid dysregulation in disease pathogenesis, establish bile acids as diagnostic markers and develop bile acid-based pharmacological interventions. In this review, we will first discuss the roles of bile acid dysregulation in the pathogenesis of chronic liver diseases, and then discuss the recent findings on the crosstalk of bile acid signalling and cellular stress responses. Future investigations are needed to better define the roles of these crosstalks in regulating cellular function and disease processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiangang Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Mohammad Nazmul Hasan
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Lijie Gu
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wang J, Wen Y, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Jiang Y, Dai C, Wu L, Leng D, He S, Bo X. An interpretable artificial intelligence framework for designing synthetic lethality-based anti-cancer combination therapies. J Adv Res 2023:S2090-1232(23)00374-0. [PMID: 38043609 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2023.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Synthetic lethality (SL) provides an opportunity to leverage different genetic interactions when designing synergistic combination therapies. To further explore SL-based combination therapies for cancer treatment, it is important to identify and mechanistically characterize more SL interactions. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods have recently been proposed for SL prediction, but the results of these models are often not interpretable such that deriving the underlying mechanism can be challenging. OBJECTIVES This study aims to develop an interpretable AI framework for SL prediction and subsequently utilize it to design SL-based synergistic combination therapies. METHODS We propose a knowledge and data dual-driven AI framework for SL prediction (KDDSL). Specifically, we use gene knowledge related to the SL mechanism to guide the construction of the model and develop a method to identify the most relevant gene knowledge for the predicted results. RESULTS Experimental and literature-based validation confirmed a good balance between predictive and interpretable ability when using KDDSL. Moreover, we demonstrated that KDDSL could help to discover promising drug combinations and clarify associated biological processes, such as the combination of MDM2 and CDK9 inhibitors, which exhibited significant anti-cancer effects in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSION These data underscore the potential of KDDSL to guide SL-based combination therapy design. There is a need for biomedicine-focused AI strategies to combine rational biological knowledge with developed models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yuqi Wen
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Yixin Zhang
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Zhongming Wang
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Yuyang Jiang
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Chong Dai
- College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Lianlian Wu
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Dongjin Leng
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Song He
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China.
| | - Xiaochen Bo
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Health Service and Transfusion Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Luo X, You X. Genetic predisposition of the gastrointestinal microbiome and primary biliary cholangitis: a bi-directional, two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1225742. [PMID: 37900141 PMCID: PMC10602727 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1225742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The gut-liver axis indicates a close relationship between the gastrointestinal microbiome (GM) and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). However, the causality of this relationship remains unknown. This study investigates the causal relationship between the GM and PBC using a bidirectional, two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. Methods Genome-wide association data for GM and PBC were obtained from public databases. The inverse-variance weighted method was the primary method used for MR analysis. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the stability of the MR results. A reverse MR analysis was performed to investigate the possibility of reverse causality. Results Three bacterial taxa were found to be causally related to PBC. Class Coriobacteriia (odds ratio (OR) = 2.18, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.295-3.661, P< 0.05) and order Coriobacteriales (OR = 2.18, 95% CI: 1.295-3.661, P<0.05) were associated with a higher risk of PBC. Class Deltaproteobacteria (OR = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.362-0.742, P< 0.05) had a protective effect on PBC. There was no evidence of reverse causality between PBC and the identified bacterial taxa. Conclusion Previously unrecognized taxa that may be involved in the pathogenesis of PBC were identified in this study, confirming the causality between the GM and PBC. These results provide novel microbial targets for the prevention and treatment of PBC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Luo
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Dermatologic and Immunologic Diseases (NCRC-DID), Beijing, China
| | - Xin You
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Ministry of Education, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Dermatologic and Immunologic Diseases (NCRC-DID), Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang J, Lyu A, Wang C. The molecular insights of bile acid homeostasis in host diseases. Life Sci 2023; 330:121919. [PMID: 37422071 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Bile acids (BAs) function as detergents promoting nutrient absorption and as hormones regulating nutrient metabolism. Most BAs are key regulatory factors of physiological activities, which are involved in the regulation of glucose, lipid, and drug metabolisms. Hepatic and intestinal diseases have close connections with the systemic cycling disorders of BAs. The abnormal in BA absorption came up with overmuch BAs could be involved in the pathophysiology of liver and bowel and metabolic disorders such as fatty liver diseases and inflammatory bowel diseases. The primary BAs (PBAs), which are synthesized in the liver, can be transformed into the secondary BAs (SBAs) by gut microbiota. The transformation processes are tightly associated with the gut microbiome and the host endogenous metabolism. The BA biosynthesis gene cluster bile-acid-inducible operon is essential for modulating BA pool, gut microbiome composition, and the onset of intestinal inflammation. This forms a bidirectional interaction between the host and its gut symbiotic ecosystem. The subtle changes in the composition and abundance of BAs perturb the host physiological and metabolic activity. Therefore, maintaining the homeostasis of BAs pool contributes to the balance of the body's physiological and metabolic system. Our review aims to dissect the molecular mechanisms underlying the BAs homeostasis, assess the key factors sustaining the homeostasis and the role of BA acting on host diseases. By linking the BAs metabolic disorders and their associated diseases, we illustrate the effects of BAs homeostasis on health and potential clinical interventions can be taken under the latest research findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinfang Zhang
- HKBU lnstitute for Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China; Institute of Integrated Bioinformedicine and Translational Sciences, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Aiping Lyu
- HKBU lnstitute for Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China; Institute of Integrated Bioinformedicine and Translational Sciences, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Chao Wang
- HKBU lnstitute for Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China; Institute of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Metabolic Disease Research Center of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Guangzhou, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abrigo J, Olguín H, Tacchi F, Orozco-Aguilar J, Valero-Breton M, Soto J, Castro-Sepúlveda M, Elorza AA, Simon F, Cabello-Verrugio C. Cholic and deoxycholic acids induce mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired biogenesis and autophagic flux in skeletal muscle cells. Biol Res 2023; 56:30. [PMID: 37291645 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-023-00436-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skeletal muscle is sensitive to bile acids (BA) because it expresses the TGR5 receptor for BA. Cholic (CA) and deoxycholic (DCA) acids induce a sarcopenia-like phenotype through TGR5-dependent mechanisms. Besides, a mouse model of cholestasis-induced sarcopenia was characterised by increased levels of serum BA and muscle weakness, alterations that are dependent on TGR5 expression. Mitochondrial alterations, such as decreased mitochondrial potential and oxygen consumption rate (OCR), increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and unbalanced biogenesis and mitophagy, have not been studied in BA-induced sarcopenia. METHODS We evaluated the effects of DCA and CA on mitochondrial alterations in C2C12 myotubes and a mouse model of cholestasis-induced sarcopenia. We measured mitochondrial mass by TOM20 levels and mitochondrial DNA; ultrastructural alterations by transmission electronic microscopy; mitochondrial biogenesis by PGC-1α plasmid reporter activity and protein levels by western blot analysis; mitophagy by the co-localisation of the MitoTracker and LysoTracker fluorescent probes; mitochondrial potential by detecting the TMRE probe signal; protein levels of OXPHOS complexes and LC3B by western blot analysis; OCR by Seahorse measures; and mtROS by MitoSOX probe signals. RESULTS DCA and CA caused a reduction in mitochondrial mass and decreased mitochondrial biogenesis. Interestingly, DCA and CA increased LC3II/LC3I ratio and decreased autophagic flux concordant with raised mitophagosome-like structures. In addition, DCA and CA decreased mitochondrial potential and reduced protein levels in OXPHOS complexes I and II. The results also demonstrated that DCA and CA decreased basal, ATP-linked, FCCP-induced maximal respiration and spare OCR. DCA and CA also reduced the number of cristae. In addition, DCA and CA increased the mtROS. In mice with cholestasis-induced sarcopenia, TOM20, OXPHOS complexes I, II and III, and OCR were diminished. Interestingly, the OCR and OXPHOS complexes were correlated with muscle strength and bile acid levels. CONCLUSION Our results showed that DCA and CA decreased mitochondrial mass, possibly by reducing mitochondrial biogenesis, which affects mitochondrial function, thereby altering potential OCR and mtROS generation. Some mitochondrial alterations were also observed in a mouse model of cholestasis-induced sarcopenia characterised by increased levels of BA, such as DCA and CA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Abrigo
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Hugo Olguín
- Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Adult Stem Cells, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Franco Tacchi
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Josué Orozco-Aguilar
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos (LEBi), Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mayalen Valero-Breton
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jorge Soto
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mauricio Castro-Sepúlveda
- Exercise Physiology and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Finis Terrae University, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alvaro A Elorza
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, and Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe Simon
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Millennium Nucleus of Ion Channel-Associated Diseases (MiNICAD), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
- Laboratory of Integrative Physiopathology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Orozco-Aguilar J, Tacchi F, Aguirre F, Valero-Breton M, Castro-Sepulveda M, Simon F, Cabello-Verrugio C. Ursodeoxycholic acid induces sarcopenia associated with decreased protein synthesis and autophagic flux. Biol Res 2023; 56:28. [PMID: 37237400 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-023-00431-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skeletal muscle generates force and movements and maintains posture. Under pathological conditions, muscle fibers suffer an imbalance in protein synthesis/degradation. This event causes muscle mass loss and decreased strength and muscle function, a syndrome known as sarcopenia. Recently, our laboratory described secondary sarcopenia in a chronic cholestatic liver disease (CCLD) mouse model. Interestingly, the administration of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), a hydrophilic bile acid, is an effective therapy for cholestatic hepatic alterations. However, the effect of UDCA on skeletal muscle mass and functionality has never been evaluated, nor the possible involved mechanisms. METHODS We assessed the ability of UDCA to generate sarcopenia in C57BL6 mice and develop a sarcopenic-like phenotype in C2C12 myotubes and isolated muscle fibers. In mice, we measured muscle strength by a grip strength test, muscle mass by bioimpedance and mass for specific muscles, and physical function by a treadmill test. We also detected the fiber's diameter and content of sarcomeric proteins. In C2C12 myotubes and/or isolated muscle fibers, we determined the diameter and troponin I level to validate the cellular effect. Moreover, to evaluate possible mechanisms, we detected puromycin incorporation, p70S6K, and 4EBP1 to evaluate protein synthesis and ULK1, LC3 I, and II protein levels to determine autophagic flux. The mitophagosome-like structures were detected by transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS UDCA induced sarcopenia in healthy mice, evidenced by decreased strength, muscle mass, and physical function, with a decline in the fiber's diameter and the troponin I protein levels. In the C2C12 myotubes, we observed that UDCA caused a reduction in the diameter and content of MHC, troponin I, puromycin incorporation, and phosphorylated forms of p70S6K and 4EBP1. Further, we detected increased levels of phosphorylated ULK1, the LC3II/LC3I ratio, and the number of mitophagosome-like structures. These data suggest that UDCA induces a sarcopenic-like phenotype with decreased protein synthesis and autophagic flux. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that UDCA induces sarcopenia in mice and sarcopenic-like features in C2C12 myotubes and/or isolated muscle fibers concomitantly with decreased protein synthesis and alterations in autophagic flux.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josué Orozco-Aguilar
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Franco Tacchi
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Aguirre
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mayalen Valero-Breton
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mauricio Castro-Sepulveda
- Exercise Physiology and Metabolism Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Finis Terrae University, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe Simon
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Laboratory of Integrative Physiopathology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Millennium Nucleus of Ion Channel-Associated Diseases (MiNICAD), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
- Millennium Institute On Immunology and Immunotherapy, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kiriyama Y, Nochi H. Role of Microbiota-Modified Bile Acids in the Regulation of Intracellular Organelles and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:825. [PMID: 37107583 PMCID: PMC10137455 DOI: 10.3390/genes14040825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bile acids (BAs) are amphiphilic steroidal molecules generated from cholesterol in the liver and facilitate the digestion and absorption of fat-soluble substances in the gut. Some BAs in the intestine are modified by the gut microbiota. Because BAs are modified in a variety of ways by different types of bacteria present in the gut microbiota, changes in the gut microbiota can affect the metabolism of BAs in the host. Although most BAs absorbed from the gut are transferred to the liver, some are transferred to the systemic circulation. Furthermore, BAs have also been detected in the brain and are thought to migrate into the brain through the systemic circulation. Although BAs are known to affect a variety of physiological functions by acting as ligands for various nuclear and cell-surface receptors, BAs have also been found to act on mitochondria and autophagy in the cell. This review focuses on the BAs modified by the gut microbiota and their roles in intracellular organelles and neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimitsu Kiriyama
- Kagawa School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Kagawa 769-2193, Japan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Tokushima Bunri University, Kagawa 769-2193, Japan
| | - Hiromi Nochi
- Kagawa School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Kagawa 769-2193, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Impaired hepatic autophagy exacerbates hepatotoxin induced liver injury. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:71. [PMID: 36810855 PMCID: PMC9944334 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01368-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatotoxins activate the hepatic survival pathway, but it is unclear whether impaired survival pathways contribute to liver injury caused by hepatotoxins. We investigated the role of hepatic autophagy, a cellular survival pathway, in cholestatic liver injury driven by a hepatotoxin. Here we demonstrate that hepatotoxin contained DDC diet impaired autophagic flux, resulting in the accumulation of p62-Ub-intrahyaline bodies (IHBs) but not the Mallory Denk-Bodies (MDBs). An impaired autophagic flux was associated with a deregulated hepatic protein-chaperonin system and significant decline in Rab family proteins. Additionally, p62-Ub-IHB accumulation activated the NRF2 pathway rather than the proteostasis-related ER stress signaling pathway and suppressed the FXR nuclear receptor. Moreover, we demonstrate that heterozygous deletion of Atg7, a key autophagy gene, aggravated the IHB accumulation and cholestatic liver injury. Conclusion: Impaired autophagy exacerbates hepatotoxin-induced cholestatic liver injury. The promotion of autophagy may represent a new therapeutic approach for hepatotoxin-induced liver damage.
Collapse
|
10
|
Shearn CT, Anderson AL, Devereux MW, Orlicky DJ, Michel C, Petersen DR, Miller CG, Harpavat S, Schmidt EE, Sokol RJ. The autophagic protein p62 is a target of reactive aldehydes in human and murine cholestatic liver disease. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0276879. [PMID: 36378690 PMCID: PMC9665405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0276879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory cholestatic liver diseases, including Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC), are characterized by periportal inflammation with progression to cirrhosis. The objective of this study was to examine interactions between oxidative stress and autophagy in cholestasis. Using hepatic tissue from male acute cholestatic (bile duct ligated) as well as chronic cholestatic (Mdr2KO) mice, localization of oxidative stress, the antioxidant response and induction of autophagy were analyzed and compared to human PSC liver. Concurrently, the ability of reactive aldehydes to post-translationally modify the autophagosome marker p62 was assessed in PSC liver tissue and in cell culture. Expression of autophagy markers was upregulated in human and mouse cholestatic liver. Whereas mRNA expression of Atg12, Lamp1, Sqstm1 and Map1lc3 was increased in acute cholestasis in mice, it was either suppressed or not significantly changed in chronic cholestasis. In human and murine cholestasis, periportal hepatocytes showed increased IHC staining of ubiquitin, 4-HNE, p62, and selected antioxidant proteins. Increased p62 staining colocalized with accumulation of 4-HNE-modified proteins in periportal parenchymal cells as well as with periportal macrophages in both human and mouse liver. Mechanistically, p62 was identified as a direct target of lipid aldehyde adduction in PSC hepatic tissue and in vitro cell culture. In vitro LS-MS/MS analysis of 4-HNE treated recombinant p62 identified carbonylation of His123, Cys128, His174, His181, Lys238, Cys290, His340, Lys341 and His385. These data indicate that dysregulation of autophagy and oxidative stress/protein damage are present in the same periportal hepatocyte compartment of both human and murine cholestasis. Thus, our results suggest that both increased expression as well as ineffective autophagic degradation of oxidatively-modified proteins contributes to injury in periportal parenchymal cells and that direct modification of p62 by reactive aldehydes may contribute to autophagic dysfunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colin T. Shearn
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Liver Center, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, and Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Aimee L. Anderson
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Liver Center, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, and Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Michael W. Devereux
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Liver Center, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, and Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - David J. Orlicky
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Cole Michel
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Dennis R. Petersen
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Colin G. Miller
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States of America
| | - Sanjiv Harpavat
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Edward E. Schmidt
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States of America
- Laboratory of Redox Biology, Departments of Pharmacology and Physiology, Hungarian Veterinary Medical University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ronald J. Sokol
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Liver Center, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, and Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yang X, Zhou Y, Li H, Song F, Li J, Zhang Y, Lin Y, Zhang H, Fan J, Wu W. Autophagic flux inhibition, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction in bile acids-induced impairment of human placental trophoblast. J Cell Physiol 2022; 237:3080-3094. [PMID: 35579960 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is a common pregnancy-specific disease, characterized by increased bile acid levels and adverse fetal outcomes. We previously reported excessive bile acids led to dysfunction of placental trophoblasts in ICP. However, the detailed mechanism is still unclear. Autophagy is fundamental process for protecting cell survival against adverse conditions. Here, we evaluated the effect of increased concentration of bile acids on autophagy in trophoblasts in vitro and in vivo. First, we demonstrated that the autophagy substrate p62/sequestosome-1 was accumulated in placental tissues from patients with ICP and in human trophoblasts treated with hydrophobic bile acids, including chenodeoxycholic acid and deoxycholic acid. Furthermore, we found that treatment with hydrophobic bile acids impaired autophagic flux in both time- and concentration-dependent manners, by suppressing the AMP-activated protein kinase/unc-51-like kinase 1 autophagic signaling pathway. Notably, trophoblasts were prone to apoptotic cell death upon starvation along with bile-acids treatment in vitro or in an ICP mouse model in vivo. Additionally, we revealed mitochondrial dysfunction was the predominant biological process in excessive bile acids induced trophoblast impairment under starvation by proteomic assay. Collectively, our study proposed a complex interaction of excessive bile acids induced autophagic flux, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular apoptosis in placental trophoblasts may play a critical role in the pathogenesis of ICP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi Yang
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Yulai Zhou
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Huan Li
- Songjiang Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Fuzhen Song
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Juan Li
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Birth Defects and Rare Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Lin
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Birth Defects and Rare Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huijuan Zhang
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianxia Fan
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Shanghai, China
| | - Weibin Wu
- The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China.,Institute of Birth Defects and Rare Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Transcriptional Regulation of Hepatic Autophagy by Nuclear Receptors. Cells 2022; 11:cells11040620. [PMID: 35203271 PMCID: PMC8869834 DOI: 10.3390/cells11040620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an adaptive self-eating process involved in degradation of various cellular components such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and organelles. Its activity plays an essential role in tissue homeostasis and systemic metabolism in response to diverse challenges, including nutrient depletion, pathogen invasion, and accumulations of toxic materials. Therefore, autophagy dysfunctions are intimately associated with many human diseases such as cancer, neurodegeneration, obesity, diabetes, infection, and aging. Although its acute post-translational regulation is well described, recent studies have also shown that autophagy can be controlled at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Nuclear receptors (NRs) are in general ligand-dependent transcription factors consisting of 48 members in humans. These receptors extensively control transcription of a variety of genes involved in development, metabolism, and inflammation. In this review, we discuss the roles and mechanisms of NRs in an aspect of transcriptional regulation of hepatic autophagy, and how the NR-driven autophagy pathway can be harnessed to treat various liver diseases.
Collapse
|
13
|
Byrnes K, Blessinger S, Bailey NT, Scaife R, Liu G, Khambu B. Therapeutic regulation of autophagy in hepatic metabolism. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:33-49. [PMID: 35127371 PMCID: PMC8799888 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic homeostasis requires dynamic catabolic and anabolic processes. Autophagy, an intracellular lysosomal degradative pathway, can rewire cellular metabolism linking catabolic to anabolic processes and thus sustain homeostasis. This is especially relevant in the liver, a key metabolic organ that governs body energy metabolism. Autophagy's role in hepatic energy regulation has just begun to emerge and autophagy seems to have a much broader impact than what has been appreciated in the field. Though classically known for selective or bulk degradation of cellular components or energy-dense macromolecules, emerging evidence indicates autophagy selectively regulates various signaling proteins to directly impact the expression levels of metabolic enzymes or their upstream regulators. Hence, we review three specific mechanisms by which autophagy can regulate metabolism: A) nutrient regeneration, B) quality control of organelles, and C) signaling protein regulation. The plasticity of the autophagic function is unraveling a new therapeutic approach. Thus, we will also discuss the potential translation of promising preclinical data on autophagy modulation into therapeutic strategies that can be used in the clinic to treat common metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Key Words
- AIM, Atf8 interacting motif
- ATGL, adipose triglyceride lipase
- ATL3, Atlastin GTPase 3
- ATM, ATM serine/threonine kinase
- Autophagy
- BA, bile acid
- BCL2L13, BCL2 like 13
- BNIP3, BCL2 interacting protein 3
- BNIP3L, BCL2 interacting protein 3 like
- CAR, constitutive androstane receptor
- CCPG1, cell cycle progression 1
- CLN3, lysosomal/endosomal transmembrane protein
- CMA, chaperonin mediated autophagy
- CREB, cAMP response element binding protein
- CRY1, cryptochrome 1
- CYP27A1, sterol 27-hydroxylase
- CYP7A1, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase
- Cryptochrome 1
- DFCP1, double FYVE-containing protein 1
- FAM134B, family with sequence similarity 134, member B
- FFA, free fatty acid
- FOXO1, Forkhead box O1
- FUNDC1, FUN14 domain containing 1
- FXR, farnesoid X receptor
- Farnesoid X receptor
- GABARAPL1, GABA type A receptor associated protein like 1
- GIM, GABARAP-interacting motif
- LAAT-1, lysosomal amino acid transporter 1 homologue
- LALP70, lysosomal apyrase-like protein of 70 kDa
- LAMP1, lysosomal-associated membrane protein-1
- LAMP2, lysosomal-associated membrane protein-2
- LD, lipid droplet
- LIMP1, lysosomal integral membrane protein-1
- LIMP3, lysosomal integral membrane protein-3
- LIR, LC3 interacting region
- LXRa, liver X receptor a
- LYAAT-1, lysosomal amino acid transporter 1
- Liver metabolism
- Lysosome
- MCOLN1, mucolipin 1
- MFSD1, major facilitator superfamily domain containing 1
- NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
- NBR1, BRCA1 gene 1 protein
- NCoR1, nuclear receptor co-repressor 1
- NDP52, calcium-binding and coiled-coil domain-containing protein 2
- NPC-1, Niemann-Pick disease, type C1
- Nutrient regeneration
- OPTN, optineurin
- PEX5, peroxisomal biogenesis factor 5
- PI3K, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase
- PINK1, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-induced kinase 1
- PKA, protein kinase A
- PKB, protein kinase B
- PLIN2, perilipin 2
- PLIN3, perilipin 3
- PP2A, protein phosphatase 2a
- PPARα, peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-alpha
- PQLC2, PQ-loop protein
- PXR, pregnane X receptor
- Quality control
- RETREG1, reticulophagy regulator 1
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- RTN3, reticulon 3
- RTNL3, a long isoform of RTN3
- S1PR2, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2
- S6K, P70-S6 kinase
- S6RP, S6 ribosomal protein
- SCARB2, scavenger receptor class B member 2
- SEC62, SEC62 homolog, preprotein translocation factor
- SIRT1, sirtuin 1
- SLC36A1, solute carrier family 36 member 1
- SLC38A7, solute carrier family 38 member 7
- SLC38A9, sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporter 9
- SNAT7, sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporter 7
- SPIN, spindling
- SQSTM1, sequestosome 1
- STBD1, starch-binding domain-containing protein 1
- Signaling proteins
- TBK1, serine/threonine-protein kinase
- TEX264, testis expressed 264, ER-phagy receptor
- TFEB/TFE3, transcription factor EB
- TGR5, takeda G protein receptor 5
- TRAC-1, thyroid-hormone-and retinoic acid-receptor associated co-repressor 1
- TRPML1, transient receptor potential mucolipin 1
- ULK1, Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1
- UPR, unfolded protein response
- V-ATPase, vacuolar-ATPase
- VDR, vitamin D3 receptor
- VLDL, very-low-density lipoprotein
- WIPI1, WD repeat domain phosphoinositide-interacting protein 1
- mTORC1, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1
Collapse
|
14
|
Involvement of Autophagy in Ageing and Chronic Cholestatic Diseases. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102772. [PMID: 34685751 PMCID: PMC8534511 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a “housekeeping” lysosomal degradation process involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes in all eukaryotic cells. The dysregulation of hepatic autophagy has been described in several conditions, from obesity to diabetes and cholestatic disease. We review the role of autophagy, focusing on age-related cholestatic diseases, and discuss its therapeutic potential and the molecular targets identified to date. The accumulation of toxic BAs is the main cause of cell damage in cholestasis patients. BAs and their receptor, FXR, have been implicated in the regulation of hepatic autophagy. The mechanisms by which cholestasis induces liver damage include mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and ER stress, which lead to cell death and ultimately to liver fibrosis as a compensatory mechanism to reduce the damage. The stimulation of autophagy seems to ameliorate the liver damage. Autophagic activity decreases with age in several species, whereas its basic extends lifespan in animals, suggesting that it is one of the convergent mechanisms of several longevity pathways. No strategies aimed at inducing autophagy have yet been tested in cholestasis patients. However, its stimulation can be viewed as a novel therapeutic strategy that may reduce ageing-dependent liver deterioration and also mitigate hepatic steatosis.
Collapse
|
15
|
Shan D, Dong R, Hu Y. Current understanding of autophagy in intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Placenta 2021; 115:53-59. [PMID: 34560328 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2021.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is the most common liver disease during pregnancy. Manifested with pruritus and elevation in bile acids, the etiology of ICP is still poorly understood. Although ICP is considered relatively benign for the mother, increased rates of adverse fetal outcomes including sudden fetal demise are possible devastating outcomes associated with ICP. Limited understanding of the underlying mechanisms restricted treatment options and managements of ICP. In recent decades, evolving evidence indicated the significance of autophagy in pregnancy and pregnancy complications. Autophagy is an ancient self-defense mechanism which is essential for cell survival, differentiation and development. Autophagy has pivotal roles in embryogenesis, implantation, and maintenance of pregnancy, and is involved in the orchestration of diverse physiological and pathological cellular responses in patients with pregnancy complications. Recent advances in these research fields provide tantalizing targets on autophagy to improve the care of pregnant women. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding autophagy in ICP and its possible roles in the causation and prevention of ICP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Shan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China; Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Ruihong Dong
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China; Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yayi Hu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China; Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Qian H, Chao X, Williams J, Fulte S, Li T, Yang L, Ding WX. Autophagy in liver diseases: A review. Mol Aspects Med 2021; 82:100973. [PMID: 34120768 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2021.100973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The liver is a highly dynamic metabolic organ that plays critical roles in plasma protein synthesis, gluconeogenesis and glycogen storage, cholesterol metabolism and bile acid synthesis as well as drug/xenobiotic metabolism and detoxification. Research from the past decades indicate that autophagy, the cellular catabolic process mediated by lysosomes, plays an important role in maintaining cellular and metabolic homeostasis in the liver. Hepatic autophagy fluctuates with hormonal cues and the availability of nutrients that respond to fed and fasting states as well as circadian activities. Dysfunction of autophagy in liver parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells can lead to various liver diseases including non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases, alcohol associated liver disease, drug-induced liver injury, cholestasis, viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, targeting autophagy may be a potential strategy for treating these various liver diseases. In this review, we will discuss the current progress on the understanding of autophagy in liver physiology. We will also discuss several forms of selective autophagy in the liver and the molecular signaling pathways in regulating autophagy of different cell types and their implications in various liver diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Qian
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Xiaojuan Chao
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Jessica Williams
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Sam Fulte
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Tiangang Li
- Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, Department of Physiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Ling Yang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Pappajohn Biomedical Institute, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Liu M, Pi H, Xi Y, Wang L, Tian L, Chen M, Xie J, Deng P, Zhang T, Zhou C, Liang Y, Zhang L, He M, Lu Y, Chen C, Yu Z, Zhou Z. KIF5A-dependent axonal transport deficiency disrupts autophagic flux in trimethyltin chloride-induced neurotoxicity. Autophagy 2021; 17:903-924. [PMID: 32160081 PMCID: PMC8078766 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1739444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2019] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Trimethyltin chloride (TMT) is widely used as a constituent of fungicides and plastic stabilizers in the industrial and agricultural fields, and is generally acknowledged to have potent neurotoxicity, especially in the hippocampus; however, the mechanism of induction of neurotoxicity by TMT remains elusive. Herein, we exposed Neuro-2a cells to different concentrations of TMT (2, 4, and 8 μM) for 24 h. Proteomic analysis, coupled with bioinformatics analysis, revealed the important role of macroautophagy/autophagy-lysosome machinery in TMT-induced neurotoxicity. Further analysis indicated significant impairment of autophagic flux by TMT via suppressed lysosomal function, such as by inhibiting lysosomal proteolysis and changing the lysosomal pH, thereby contributing to defects in autophagic clearance and subsequently leading to nerve cell death. Mechanistically, molecular interaction networks of Ingenuity Pathway Analysis identified a downregulated molecule, KIF5A (kinesin family member 5A), as a key target in TMT-impaired autophagic flux. TMT decreased KIF5A protein expression, disrupted the interaction between KIF5A and lysosome, and impaired lysosomal axonal transport. Moreover, Kif5a overexpression restored axonal transport, increased lysosomal dysfunction, and antagonized TMT-induced neurotoxicity in vitro. Importantly, in TMT-administered mice with seizure symptoms and histomorphological injury in the hippocampus, TMT inhibited KIF5A expression in the hippocampus. Gene transfer of Kif5a enhanced autophagic clearance in the hippocampus and alleviated TMT-induced neurotoxicity in vivo. Our results are the first to demonstrate KIF5A-dependent axonal transport deficiency to cause autophagic flux impairment via disturbance of lysosomal function in TMT-induced neurotoxicity; manipulation of KIF5A may be a therapeutic approach for antagonizing TMT-induced neurotoxicity.Abbreviations: 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; AAV: adeno-associated virus; ACTB: actin beta; AGC: automatic gain control; ATG: autophagy-related; ATP6V0D1: ATPase H+ transporting lysosomal V0 subunit D1; ATP6V1E1: ATPase H+ transporting lysosomal V1 subunit E1; CA: cornu ammonis; CQ: chloroquine; CTSB: cathepsin B; CTSD: cathepsin D; DCTN1: dynactin subunit 1; DG: dentate gyrus; DYNLL1: dynein light chain LC8-type 1; FBS: fetal bovine serum; GABARAP: GABA type A receptor-associated protein; GABARAPL1: GABA type A receptor associated protein like 1; GABARAPL2: GABA type A receptor associated protein like 2; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; IPA: Ingenuity Pathway Analysis; KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes; KIF5A: kinesin family member 5A; LAMP: lysosomal-associated membrane protein; MAP1LC3B/LC3B: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; NBR1: NBR1 autophagy cargo receptor; OPTN: optineurin; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PFA: paraformaldehyde; PIK3C3/VPS34: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PRM: parallel reaction monitoring; siRNA: small interfering RNA; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; SYP: synaptophysin; TAX1BP1: Tax1 binding protein 1; TMT: trimethyltin chloride; TUB: tubulin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengyu Liu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Huifeng Pi
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- School of Aerospace Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yu Xi
- Department of Environmental Medicine, and Department of Emergency Medicine of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liting Wang
- Biomedical Analysis Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengyan Chen
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jia Xie
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ping Deng
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chao Zhou
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yidan Liang
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Life Sciences and School of Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mindi He
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yonghui Lu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunhai Chen
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhengping Yu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhou Zhou
- Department of Environmental Medicine, and Department of Emergency Medicine of the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Dubland JA, Allahverdian S, Besler KJ, Ortega C, Wang Y, Pryma CS, Boukais K, Chan T, Seidman MA, Francis GA. Low LAL (Lysosomal Acid Lipase) Expression by Smooth Muscle Cells Relative to Macrophages as a Mechanism for Arterial Foam Cell Formation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2021; 41:e354-e368. [PMID: 33792344 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.120.316063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Dubland
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Sima Allahverdian
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Katrina J Besler
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Carleena Ortega
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Ying Wang
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine (Y.W.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Collin S Pryma
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Kamel Boukais
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Teddy Chan
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Michael A Seidman
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Canada (M.A.S.)
| | - Gordon A Francis
- Departments of Medicine (J.A.D., S.A., K.J.B., C.O., C.S.P., K.B., T.C., G.A.F.), Centre for Heart Lung Innovation, Providence Healthcare Research Institute, St. Paul's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kouroumalis E, Voumvouraki A, Augoustaki A, Samonakis DN. Autophagy in liver diseases. World J Hepatol 2021; 13:6-65. [PMID: 33584986 PMCID: PMC7856864 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v13.i1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is the liver cell energy recycling system regulating a variety of homeostatic mechanisms. Damaged organelles, lipids and proteins are degraded in the lysosomes and their elements are re-used by the cell. Investigations on autophagy have led to the award of two Nobel Prizes and a health of important reports. In this review we describe the fundamental functions of autophagy in the liver including new data on the regulation of autophagy. Moreover we emphasize the fact that autophagy acts like a two edge sword in many occasions with the most prominent paradigm being its involvement in the initiation and progress of hepatocellular carcinoma. We also focused to the implication of autophagy and its specialized forms of lipophagy and mitophagy in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. We analyzed autophagy not only in well studied diseases, like alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver and liver fibrosis but also in viral hepatitis, biliary diseases, autoimmune hepatitis and rare diseases including inherited metabolic diseases and also acetaminophene hepatotoxicity. We also stressed the different consequences that activation or impairment of autophagy may have in hepatocytes as opposed to Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells or hepatic stellate cells. Finally, we analyzed the limited clinical data compared to the extensive experimental evidence and the possible future therapeutic interventions based on autophagy manipulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elias Kouroumalis
- Liver Research Laboratory, University of Crete Medical School, Heraklion 71110, Greece
| | - Argryro Voumvouraki
- 1 Department of Internal Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki 54636, Greece
| | - Aikaterini Augoustaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece
| | - Dimitrios N Samonakis
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Panzitt K, Fickert P, Wagner M. Regulation of autophagy by bile acids and in cholestasis - CholestoPHAGY or CholeSTOPagy. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2020; 1867:166017. [PMID: 33242590 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.166017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway in which the cell self-digests its own components to provide nutrients in harsh environmental conditions. It also represents an opportunity to rid the cell of superfluous and damaged organelles, misfolded proteins or invaded microorganisms. Liver autophagy contributes to basic hepatic functions such as lipid, glycogen and protein turnover. Deregulated hepatic autophagy has been linked to many liver diseases including alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases, hepatitis B and C infections, liver fibrosis as well as liver cancer. Recently, bile acids and the bile acid receptor FXR have been implicated in the regulation of hepatic autophagy, which implies a role of autophagy also for cholestatic liver diseases. This review summarizes the current evidence of bile acid mediated effects on autophagy and how this affects cholestatic liver diseases. Although detailed studies are lacking, we suggest a concept that the activity of autophagy in cholestasis depends on the disease stage, where autophagy may be induced at early stages ("cholestophagy") but may be impaired in prolonged cholestatic states ("cholestopagy").
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Panzitt
- Research Unit for Translational Nuclear Receptor Research, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Peter Fickert
- Laboratory of Experimental and Molecular Hepatology, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Martin Wagner
- Research Unit for Translational Nuclear Receptor Research, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Liu Z, Lv X, Xu L, Liu X, Zhu X, Song E, Song Y. Zinc oxide nanoparticles effectively regulate autophagic cell death by activating autophagosome formation and interfering with their maturation. Part Fibre Toxicol 2020; 17:46. [PMID: 32948194 PMCID: PMC7501661 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-020-00379-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the development of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in the field of nanotechnology, their toxicological effects are attracting increasing attention, and the mechanisms for ZnO NPs neurotoxicity remain obscure. In an attempt to address concerns regarding neurotoxicity of ZnO NPs, we explored the relationship between free zinc ions, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and neurotoxic mechanisms in ZnO NPs-exposed PC12 cells. RESULT This study demonstrated the requirement of free zinc ions shed by ZnO NPs to over generation of intracellular ROS. Next, we identified autophagic cell death was the major mode of cell death induced by ZnO NPs, and autophagosome accumulation resulted from not only induction of autophagy, but also blockade of autophagy flux. We concluded that autophagic cell death, resulting from zinc ions-ROS-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-autophagy positive feedback loop and blockade of autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion, played a major role in the neurotoxicity of ZnO NPs. CONCLUSION Our study contributes to a better understanding of the neurotoxicity of ZnO NPs and might be useful for designing and developing new biosafety nanoparticles in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zixuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuying Lv
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuting Liu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Erqun Song
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Song
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
FXR-dependent Rubicon induction impairs autophagy in models of human cholestasis. J Hepatol 2020; 72:1122-1131. [PMID: 32001325 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2020.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Cholestasis comprises a spectrum of liver diseases characterized by the accumulation of bile acids. Bile acids and activation of the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) can inhibit autophagy, a cellular self-digestion process necessary for cellular homeostasis and regeneration. In mice, autophagy appears to be impaired in cholestasis and induction of autophagy may reduce liver injury. METHODS Herein, we explored autophagy in human cholestasis in vivo and investigated the underlying molecular mechanisms in vitro. FXR chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing and qPCR were performed in combination with luciferase promoter studies to identify functional FXR binding targets in a human cholestatic liver sample. RESULTS Autophagic processing appeared to be impaired in patients with cholestasis and in individuals treated with the FXR ligand obeticholic acid (OCA). In vitro, chenodeoxycholic acid and OCA inhibited autophagy at the level of autophagosome to lysosome fusion in an FXR-dependent manner. Rubicon, which inhibits autophago-lysosomal maturation, was identified as a direct FXR target that is induced in cholestasis and by FXR-agonistic bile acids. Genetic inhibition of Rubicon reversed the bile acid-induced impairment of autophagic flux. In contrast to OCA, ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), which is a non-FXR-agonistic bile acid, induced autophagolysosome formation independently of FXR, enhanced autophagic flux and was associated with reduced Rubicon levels. CONCLUSION In models of human cholestasis, autophagic processing is impaired in an FXR-dependent manner, partly resulting from the induction of Rubicon. UDCA is a potent inducer of hepatic autophagy. Manipulating autophagy and Rubicon may represent a novel treatment concept for cholestatic liver diseases. LAY SUMMARY Autophagy, a cellular self-cleansing process, is impaired in various forms of human cholestasis. Bile acids, which accumulate in cholestatic liver disease, induce Rubicon, a protein that inhibits proper execution of autophagy. Ursodeoxycholic acid, which is the first-line treatment option for many cholestatic liver diseases, induces hepatic autophagy along with reducing Rubicon.
Collapse
|
23
|
Lan W, Chen Z, Chen Y, Tan M, Chen Y, Chen J, Chi X, Chen Y. Glycochenodeoxycholic acid impairs transcription factor E3 -dependent autophagy-lysosome machinery by disrupting reactive oxygen species homeostasis in L02 cells. Toxicol Lett 2020; 331:11-21. [PMID: 32439580 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cholestasis represents pathophysiologic syndromes defined as impaired bile flow from the liver. As an outcome, bile acids accumulate and promote hepatocyte injury, followed by liver cirrhosis and liver failure. Glycochenodeoxycholic acid (GCDCA) is relatively toxic and highly concentrated in bile and serum after cholestasis. However, the mechanism underlying GCDCA-induced hepatotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we found that GCDCA inhibits autophagosome formation and impairs lysosomal function by inhibiting lysosomal proteolysis and increasing lysosomal pH, contributing to defects in autophagic clearance and subsequently leading to the death of L02 human hepatocyte cells. Notably, through tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomic analysis and database searches, 313 differentially expressed proteins were identified, of which 71 were increased and 242 were decreased in the GCDCA group compared with those in the control group. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed that GCDCA suppressed the signaling pathway of transcription factor E3 (TFE3), which was the most closely associated with autophagic flux impairment. In contrast, GCDCA-inhibited lysosomal function and autophagic flux were efficiently attenuated by TFE3 overexpression. Specifically, the decreased expression of TFE3 was closely related to the disruption of reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis, which could be prevented by inhibiting intracellular ROS with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC). In summary, our study is the first to demonstrate that manipulation of ROS/TFE3 signaling may be a therapeutic approach for antagonizing GCDCA-induced hepatotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weifeng Lan
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China
| | - Zhijian Chen
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China
| | - Yongtai Chen
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China
| | - Miduo Tan
- Surgery Department of Galactophore, The Affiliated Zhuzhou Hospital Xiangya Medical College CSU, Zhuzhou, 412007, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China
| | - Jianwei Chen
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China; Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team, PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China
| | - Xiaobin Chi
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China; Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team, PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China.
| | - Yongbiao Chen
- Fuzong Clinical Medical College of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China; Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team, PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian, 350025, China.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Gijbels E, Vilas-Boas V, Annaert P, Vanhaecke T, Devisscher L, Vinken M. Robustness testing and optimization of an adverse outcome pathway on cholestatic liver injury. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:1151-1172. [PMID: 32152650 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02691-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) have been recently introduced as tools to map the mechanisms underlying toxic events relevant for chemical risk assessment. AOPs particularly depict the linkage between a molecular initiating event and an adverse outcome through a number of intermediate key events. An AOP has been previously introduced for cholestatic liver injury. The objective of this study was to test the robustness of this AOP for different types of cholestatic insult and the in vitro to in vivo extrapolation. For this purpose, in vitro samples from human hepatoma HepaRG cell cultures were exposed to cholestatic drugs (i.e. intrahepatic cholestasis), while in vivo samples were obtained from livers of cholestatic mice (i.e. extrahepatic cholestasis). The occurrence of cholestasis in vitro was confirmed through analysis of bile transporter functionality and bile acid analysis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed inflammation and oxidative stress as key events in both types of cholestatic liver injury. Major transcriptional differences between intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholestatic liver insults were observed at the level of cell death and metabolism. Novel key events identified by pathway analysis included endoplasmic reticulum stress in intrahepatic cholestasis, and autophagy and necroptosis in both intrahepatic as extrahepatic cholestasis. This study demonstrates that AOPs constitute dynamic tools that should be frequently updated with new input information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Gijbels
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Vânia Vilas-Boas
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pieter Annaert
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Herestraat 49-box 921, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tamara Vanhaecke
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lindsey Devisscher
- Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, Gut-Liver Immunopharmacology Unit, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, C. Heymanslaan 10, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mathieu Vinken
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Tsai MS, Lee HM, Huang SC, Sun CK, Chiu TC, Chen PH, Lin YC, Hung TM, Lee PH, Kao YH. Nerve growth factor induced farnesoid X receptor upregulation modulates autophagy flux and protects hepatocytes in cholestatic livers. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 682:108281. [PMID: 32001246 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Upregulation of nerve growth factor (NGF) in parenchymal hepatocytes has been shown to exert hepatoprotective function during cholestatic liver injury. However, the modulatory role of NGF in regulation of liver autophagy remains unclear. This study aimed to scrutinize the regulatory role of NGF in hepatic expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a bile acid (BA)-activated nuclear receptor, and to determine its cytoprotective effect on BA-induced autophagy and cytotoxicity. Livers of human hepatolithiasis and bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced mouse cholestasis were used for histopathological and molecular detection. The regulatory roles of NGF in autophagy flux and FXR expression, as well as its hepatoprotection against BA cytotoxicity were examined in cultured hepatocytes. FXR downregulation in human hepatolithiasis livers showed positive correlation with hepatic NGF levels. NGF administration upregulated hepatic FXR levels, while neutralization of NGF decreased FXR expression in BDL-induced cholestatic mouse livers. In vitro studies demonstrated that NGF upregulated FXR expression, increased cellular LC3 levels, and exerted hepatoprotective effect in cultured primary rat hepatocytes. Conversely, autophagy inhibition abrogated NGF-driven cytoprotection under BA exposure, suggesting involvement of NGF-modulated auophagy flux. Although FXR agonistic GW4064 stimulation did not affect auophagic LC3 levels, FXR activity inhibition significantly potentiated BA-induced cytotoxicity and increased cellular p62/SQSTM1 and Rab7 protein in SK-Hep1 hepatocytes. Moreover, FXR gene silencing abolished the protective effect of NGF under BA exposure. These findings support that NGF modulates autophagy flux via FXR upregulation and protects hepatocytes against BA-induced cytotoxicity. NGF/FXR axis is a novel therapeutic target for treatment of cholestatic liver diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Shian Tsai
- Department of Surgery, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Body Health and Beauty Center, Jiann-Ren Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Ming Lee
- Department of Surgery, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Che Huang
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Cheuk-Kwan Sun
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Emergency Medicine, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; School of Medicine, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | - Po-Han Chen
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chun Lin
- Department of Surgery, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Min Hung
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Committee for Integration and Promotion of Advanced Medicine and Biotechnology, E-Da Healthcare Group, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Po-Huang Lee
- Department of Surgery, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Committee for Integration and Promotion of Advanced Medicine and Biotechnology, E-Da Healthcare Group, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Ying-Hsien Kao
- Department of Medical Research, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Kwak BJ, Choi HJ, Kim OH, Kim KH, You YK, Lee TY, Ahn J, Kim SJ. The Role of Phospho-c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase Expression on hepatocyte Necrosis and Autophagy in the Cholestatic Liver. J Surg Res 2019; 241:254-263. [PMID: 31035140 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2019.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clinically, liver fibrosis and cholestasis are two major disease entities, ultimately leading to hepatic failure. Although autophagy plays a substantial role in the pathogenesis of these diseases, its precise mechanism has not been determined yet. MATERIALS AND METHODS Mouse models of liver fibrosis or cholestasis were obtained after the serial administration of thioacetamide (TAA) or surgical bile duct ligation (BDL), respectively. Then, after obtaining liver specimens at specific time points, we compared the expression of makers related to apoptosis (cleaved caspases), inflammation (CD68), necrosis (high-mobility group box 1), phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), and autophagy (microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B and p62) in the fibrotic or cholestatic mouse livers, by polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence. RESULTS Although cholestatic livers exhibited the tendency of progressively increasing the expression of most apoptosis-related markers (cleaved caspases), it was not prominent when it was compared with the tendency found in the livers of TAA-treated mice. Contrastingly, the necrosis-related factor (high-mobility group box 1) was significantly increased in the livers of BDL mice over time, reaching their peak values on day 7 after BDL. In addition, the inflammation-related factor (CD68) was highly expressed in BDL mice compared with TAA-treated mice over time. Autophagy marker studies indicated that autophagy was upregulated in fibrotic livers, whereas it was downregulated in cholestatic livers. We also observed mild to moderate activation of p-JNK in the livers of TAA-treated mice, whereas significantly higher p-JNK activation was detected in the livers of BDL mice. CONCLUSIONS Unlike TAA-treated mice, BDL mice exhibited higher expression of the markers related with inflammation and necrosis, especially including p-JNK, while maintaining low levels of autophagic process. Therefore, obstructive cholestasis is characterized by higher p-JNK activation, which could be related with marked necrotic cell death resulting from extensive inflammation and little chance of compensatory autophagy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bong Jun Kwak
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Joong Choi
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ok-Hee Kim
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Catholic Central Laboratory of Surgery, Institute of Biomedical Industry, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kee-Hwan Kim
- Department of Surgery, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Kyoung You
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Yoon Lee
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Joseph Ahn
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Say-June Kim
- Department of Surgery, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Catholic Central Laboratory of Surgery, Institute of Biomedical Industry, College of Medicine, the Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Gijbels E, Vilas-Boas V, Deferm N, Devisscher L, Jaeschke H, Annaert P, Vinken M. Mechanisms and in vitro models of drug-induced cholestasis. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:1169-1186. [PMID: 30972450 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02437-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cholestasis underlies one of the major manifestations of drug-induced liver injury. Drug-induced cholestatic liver toxicity is a complex process, as it can be triggered by a variety of factors that induce 2 types of biological responses, namely a deteriorative response, caused by bile acid accumulation, and an adaptive response, aimed at removing the accumulated bile acids. Several key events in both types of responses have been characterized in the past few years. In parallel, many efforts have focused on the development and further optimization of experimental cell culture models to predict the occurrence of drug-induced cholestatic liver toxicity in vivo. In this paper, a state-of-the-art overview of mechanisms and in vitro models of drug-induced cholestatic liver injury is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Gijbels
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Vânia Vilas-Boas
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Neel Deferm
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, O&N2, Herestraat 49, Bus 921, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lindsey Devisscher
- Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, Gut-Liver Immunopharmacology Unit, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, C. Heymanslaan 10, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Hartmut Jaeschke
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, MS 1018, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Pieter Annaert
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, O&N2, Herestraat 49, Bus 921, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mathieu Vinken
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Hegyi P, Maléth J, Walters JR, Hofmann AF, Keely SJ. Guts and Gall: Bile Acids in Regulation of Intestinal Epithelial Function in Health and Disease. Physiol Rev 2019; 98:1983-2023. [PMID: 30067158 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00054.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells line the entire surface of the gastrointestinal tract and its accessory organs where they primarily function in transporting digestive enzymes, nutrients, electrolytes, and fluid to and from the luminal contents. At the same time, epithelial cells are responsible for forming a physical and biochemical barrier that prevents the entry into the body of harmful agents, such as bacteria and their toxins. Dysregulation of epithelial transport and barrier function is associated with the pathogenesis of a number of conditions throughout the intestine, such as inflammatory bowel disease, chronic diarrhea, pancreatitis, reflux esophagitis, and cancer. Driven by discovery of specific receptors on intestinal epithelial cells, new insights into mechanisms that control their synthesis and enterohepatic circulation, and a growing appreciation of their roles as bioactive bacterial metabolites, bile acids are currently receiving a great deal of interest as critical regulators of epithelial function in health and disease. This review aims to summarize recent advances in this field and to highlight how bile acids are now emerging as exciting new targets for disease intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Hegyi
- Momentum Translational Gastroenterology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary ; Momentum Epithelial Cell Signalling and Secretion Research Group and First Department of Medicine, University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Gastroenterology, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom ; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California ; and Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Joszef Maléth
- Momentum Translational Gastroenterology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary ; Momentum Epithelial Cell Signalling and Secretion Research Group and First Department of Medicine, University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Gastroenterology, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom ; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California ; and Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Julian R Walters
- Momentum Translational Gastroenterology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary ; Momentum Epithelial Cell Signalling and Secretion Research Group and First Department of Medicine, University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Gastroenterology, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom ; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California ; and Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Alan F Hofmann
- Momentum Translational Gastroenterology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary ; Momentum Epithelial Cell Signalling and Secretion Research Group and First Department of Medicine, University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Gastroenterology, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom ; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California ; and Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Stephen J Keely
- Momentum Translational Gastroenterology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences-University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs , Pécs , Hungary ; Momentum Epithelial Cell Signalling and Secretion Research Group and First Department of Medicine, University of Szeged , Szeged , Hungary ; Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Gastroenterology, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London , London , United Kingdom ; Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California ; and Department of Molecular Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital , Dublin , Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
Cholestasis can be defined as any situation of impaired bile secretion with concomitant accumulation of bile acids in the liver or in the systemic circulation. A variety of factors may evoke cholestasis, including genetic disorders, metabolic pathologies, infectious diseases, immunogenic stimuli, and drugs. Drug-induced cholestasis is a mechanistically complex process. At least three triggering factors of drug-induced cholestasis have been described, including effects on drug transporters, various hepatocellular changes, and altered bile canaliculi dynamics. These stimuli induce two cellular responses, each typified by a number of key events, namely a deteriorative response activated by bile acid accumulation and an adaptive response aimed at decreasing the uptake and increasing the export of bile acids into and from the liver, respectively. The mechanistic scenario of drug-induced cholestasis is described in this chapter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Gijbels
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mathieu Vinken
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Wang Y, Ding WX, Li T. Cholesterol and bile acid-mediated regulation of autophagy in fatty liver diseases and atherosclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:726-733. [PMID: 29653253 PMCID: PMC6037329 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Liver is the major organ that regulates whole body cholesterol metabolism. Disrupted hepatic cholesterol homeostasis contributes to the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Hepatic bile acid synthesis is the major catabolic mechanism for cholesterol elimination from the body. Furthermore, bile acids are signaling molecules that regulate liver metabolism and inflammation. Autophagy is a highly-conserved lysosomal degradation mechanism, which plays an essential role in maintaining cellular integrity and energy homeostasis. In this review, we discuss emerging evidence linking hepatic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism to cellular autophagy activity in hepatocytes and macrophages, and how these interactions may be implicated in the pathogenesis and treatment of fatty liver disease and atherosclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifeng Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, United States
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, United States
| | - Tiangang Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Vinken M. In vitro prediction of drug-induced cholestatic liver injury: a challenge for the toxicologist. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:1909-1912. [PMID: 29574564 PMCID: PMC6084771 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2201-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Vinken
- Department of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103, 1090, Brussels, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Ellis JL, Bove KE, Schuetz EG, Leino D, Valencia CA, Schuetz JD, Miethke A, Yin C. Zebrafish abcb11b mutant reveals strategies to restore bile excretion impaired by bile salt export pump deficiency. Hepatology 2018; 67:1531-1545. [PMID: 29091294 PMCID: PMC6480337 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Bile salt export pump (BSEP) adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette B11 (ABCB11) is a liver-specific ABC transporter that mediates canalicular bile salt excretion from hepatocytes. Human mutations in ABCB11 cause progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 2. Although over 150 ABCB11 variants have been reported, our understanding of their biological consequences is limited by the lack of an experimental model that recapitulates the patient phenotypes. We applied CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing technology to knock out abcb11b, the ortholog of human ABCB11, in zebrafish and found that these mutants died prematurely. Histological and ultrastructural analyses showed that abcb11b mutant zebrafish exhibited hepatocyte injury similar to that seen in patients with progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 2. Hepatocytes of mutant zebrafish failed to excrete the fluorescently tagged bile acid that is a substrate of human BSEP. Multidrug resistance protein 1, which is thought to play a compensatory role in Abcb11 knockout mice, was mislocalized to the hepatocyte cytoplasm in abcb11b mutant zebrafish and in a patient lacking BSEP protein due to nonsense mutations in ABCB11. We discovered that BSEP deficiency induced autophagy in both human and zebrafish hepatocytes. Treatment with rapamycin restored bile acid excretion, attenuated hepatocyte damage, and extended the life span of abcb11b mutant zebrafish, correlating with the recovery of canalicular multidrug resistance protein 1 localization. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these data suggest a model that rapamycin rescues BSEP-deficient phenotypes by prompting alternative transporters to excrete bile salts; multidrug resistance protein 1 is a candidate for such an alternative transporter. (Hepatology 2018;67:1531-1545).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jillian L. Ellis
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Kevin E. Bove
- Department of Pathology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Erin G. Schuetz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Daniel Leino
- Department of Pathology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - C. Alexander Valencia
- Program and Division of Human Genetics, Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - John D. Schuetz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Alexander Miethke
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Chunyue Yin
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA,Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Shah F, Medvedev A, Wassermann AM, Brodney M, Zhang L, Makarov S, Stanton RV. The Identification of Pivotal Transcriptional Factors Mediating Cell Responses to Drugs With Drug-Induced Liver Injury Liabilities. Toxicol Sci 2018; 162:177-188. [PMID: 29106686 PMCID: PMC6257024 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfx231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a leading cause of drug attrition during drug development and a common reason for drug withdrawal from the market. The poor predictability of conventional animal-based approaches necessitates the development of alternative testing approaches. A body of evidence associates DILI with the induction of stress-response genes in liver cells. Here, we set out to identify signal transduction pathways predominantly involved in the regulation of gene transcription by DILI drugs. To this end, we employed ATTAGENE's cell-based multiplexed reporter assay, the FACTORIAL transcription factor (TF), that enables quantitative assessment of the activity of multiple stress-responsive TFs in a single well of cells. Homogeneous reporter system enables quantitative functional assessment of multiple transcription factors. Nat. Methods 5, 253-260). Using this assay, we assessed TF responses of the human hepatoma cell line HepG2 to a panel of 64 drug candidates, including 23 preclinical DILI and 11 clinical DILI compounds and 30 nonhepatotoxic compounds from a diverse physicochemical property space. We have identified 16 TF families that specifically responded to DILI drugs, including nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 antioxidant response element, octamer, hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha, farnesoid-X receptor, TCF/beta-catenin, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, activator protein-1, E2F, early growth response-1, metal-response transcription factor 1, sterol regulatory element-binding protein, paired box protein, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, liver X receptor, interferone regulating factor, and P53, and 2 promoters that responded to multiple TFs (cytomegalovirus and direct repeat 3/vitamin D receptor). Some of TFs identified here also have previously defined role in pathogenesis of liver diseases. These data demonstrate the utility of cost-effective, animal-free, TF profiling assay for detecting DILI potential of drug candidates at early stages of drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Falgun Shah
- Computational Sciences, Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Inc,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | | | - Anne Mai Wassermann
- Computational Sciences, Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Inc,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Marian Brodney
- Computational Sciences, Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Inc,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Liying Zhang
- Computational Sciences, Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Inc,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | | | - Robert V Stanton
- Computational Sciences, Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Inc,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Xiong X, Ren Y, Cui Y, Li R, Wang C, Zhang Y. Obeticholic acid protects mice against lipopolysaccharide-induced liver injury and inflammation. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 96:1292-1298. [PMID: 29174575 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.11.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cholestasis, as a main manifestation, induces liver injury during sepsis. The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) plays an important role in regulating bile acid homeostasis. Whether FXR activation by its agonist obeticholic acid (OCA) is contributed to improve sepsis-induced liver injury remains unknown. OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of OCA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute liver injury in mice. RESULTS 8-week old male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control group, LPS group, oral OCA group and LPS plus oral OCA (LPS + OCA) group. The serum and livers were collected for further analysis. Serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bile acid (TBA) and total bilirubin (TBIL) were measured at indicated time after LPS administration. Liver sections were stained with hematoxylin & eosin (H&E). Orally OCA pretreatment stimulated the expression of FXR and BSEP in livers and protected mice from LPS-induced hepatocyte apoptosis and inflammatory infiltration. Consistently, LPS-induced higher serum levels of ALT, AST, TBA and TBIL were significantly reversed by OCA administration. Meanwhile, the mRNA levels of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and IL-6 were decreased in livers of mice in LPS + OCA group compared with LPS group. Further investigation indicated that the higher expression of ATF4 and LC3II/I were associated with the protective effect of OCA on LPS-induced liver injury. CONCLUSION Orally OCA pretreatment protects mice from LPS-induced liver injury possibly contributed by improved bile acid homeostasis, decreased inflammatory factors and ATF4-mediated autophagy activity in hepatocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi Xiong
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Yuqian Ren
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Yun Cui
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China
| | - Chunxia Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China.
| | - Yucai Zhang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, No.355 Luding Road, Putuo District, Shanghai, 200062, China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common liver disease in Western populations. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a more debilitating form of NAFLD characterized by hepatocellular injury and inflammation, which significantly increase the risk of end-stage liver and cardiovascular diseases. Unfortunately, there are no available drug therapies for NASH. Bile acids are physiological detergent molecules that are synthesized from cholesterol exclusively in the hepatocytes. Bile acids circulate between the liver and intestine, where they are required for cholesterol solubilization in the bile and dietary fat emulsification in the gut. Bile acids also act as signaling molecules that regulate metabolic homeostasis and inflammatory processes. Many of these effects are mediated by the bile acid-activated nuclear receptor farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and the G protein-coupled receptor TGR5. Nutrient signaling regulates hepatic bile acid synthesis and circulating plasma bile acid concentrations, which in turn control metabolic homeostasis. The FXR agonist obeticholic acid has had beneficial effects on NASH in recent clinical trials. Preclinical studies have suggested that the TGR5 agonist and the FXR/TGR5 dual agonist are also potential therapies for metabolic liver diseases. Extensive studies in the past few decades have significantly improved our understanding of the metabolic regulatory function of bile acids, which has provided the molecular basis for developing promising bile acid-based therapeutic agents for NASH treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tiangang Li
- Corresponding author: Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, USA,
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Chiang JY. Bile acid metabolism and signaling in liver diseases: Emerging trends of liver research and therapy. LIVER RESEARCH 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livres.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
|
37
|
Pi H, Li M, Tian L, Yang Z, Yu Z, Zhou Z. Enhancing lysosomal biogenesis and autophagic flux by activating the transcription factor EB protects against cadmium-induced neurotoxicity. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43466. [PMID: 28240313 PMCID: PMC5327481 DOI: 10.1038/srep43466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd), a highly ubiquitous heavy metal, is a well-known inducer of neurotoxicity. However, the mechanism underlying cadmium-induced neurotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we found that Cd inhibits autophagosome-lysosome fusion and impairs lysosomal function by reducing the levels of lysosomal-associated membrane proteins, inhibiting lysosomal proteolysis and altering lysosomal pH, contributing to defects in autophagic clearance and subsequently leading to nerve cell death. In addition, Cd decreases transcription factor EB (TFEB) expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, Cd induces the nuclear translocation of TFEB and TFEB target-gene expression, associated with compromised lysosomal function or a compensatory effect after the impairment of the autophagic flux. Notably, restoration of the levels of lysosomal-associated membrane protein, lysosomal proteolysis, lysosomal pH and autophagic flux through Tfeb overexpression protects against Cd-induced neurotoxicity, and this protective effect is incompletely dependent on TFEB nuclear translocation. Moreover, gene transfer of the master autophagy regulator TFEB results in the clearance of toxic proteins and the correction of Cd-induced neurotoxicity in vivo. Our study is the first to demonstrate that Cd disrupts lysosomal function and autophagic flux and manipulation of TFEB signalling may be a therapeutic approach for antagonizing Cd-induced neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huifeng Pi
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
| | - Min Li
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhiqi Yang
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Neurology, Army General Hospital in Lanzhou, Lanzhou 730000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhengping Yu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhou Zhou
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Khan Z, Yokota S, Ono Y, Bell AW, Oertel M, Stolz DB, Michalopoulos GK. Bile Duct Ligation Induces ATZ Globule Clearance in a Mouse Model of α-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency. Gene Expr 2017; 17:115-127. [PMID: 27938510 PMCID: PMC5296240 DOI: 10.3727/105221616x692991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
α-1 Antitrypsin deficiency (A1ATD) can progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma; however, not all patients are susceptible to severe liver disease. In A1ATD, a toxic gain-of-function mutation generates insoluble ATZ "globules" in hepatocytes, overwhelming protein clearance mechanisms. The relationship between bile acids and hepatocytic autophagy is less clear but may involve altered gene expression pathways. Based on previous findings that bile duct ligation (BDL) induces autophagy, we hypothesized that retained bile acids may have hepatoprotective effects in PiZZ transgenic mice, which model A1ATD. We performed BDL and partial BDL (pBDL) in PiZZ mice, followed by analysis of liver tissues. PiZZ liver subjected to BDL showed up to 50% clearance of ATZ globules, with increased expression of autophagy proteins. Analysis of transcription factors revealed significant changes. Surprisingly nuclear TFEB, a master regulator of autophagy, remained unchanged. pBDL confirmed that ATZ globule clearance was induced by localized stimuli rather than diet or systemic effects. Several genes involved in bile metabolism were overexpressed in globule-devoid hepatocytes, compared to globule-containing cells. Retained bile acids led to a dramatic reduction of ATZ globules, with enhanced hepatocyte regeneration and autophagy. These findings support investigation of synthetic bile acids as potential autophagy-enhancing agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zahida Khan
- *Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- †Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- ‡McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Shinichiro Yokota
- §Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- ¶Department of Surgery, Jichi Medical University, Shimotsuke, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ono
- §Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Aaron W. Bell
- †Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Michael Oertel
- †Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Donna B. Stolz
- ‡McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- #Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - George K. Michalopoulos
- †Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- ‡McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Wang Y, Ding Y, Li J, Chavan H, Matye D, Ni HM, Chiang JY, Krishnamurthy P, Ding WX, Li T. Targeting the Enterohepatic Bile Acid Signaling Induces Hepatic Autophagy via a CYP7A1-AKT-mTOR Axis in Mice. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016; 3:245-260. [PMID: 28275691 PMCID: PMC5331786 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Hepatic cholesterol accumulation and autophagy defects contribute to hepatocyte injury in fatty liver disease. Bile acid synthesis is a major pathway for cholesterol catabolism in the liver. This study aims to understand the molecular link between cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and hepatic autophagy activity. METHODS The effects of cholesterol and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression on autophagy and lysosome function were studied in cell models. The effects and mechanism of disrupting enterohepatic bile acid circulation on hepatic autophagy were studied in mice. RESULTS The results first showed differential regulation of hepatic autophagy by free cholesterol and cholesterol ester, whereby a modest increase of cellular free cholesterol, but not cholesterol ester, impaired lysosome function and caused marked autolysosome accumulation. We found that CYP7A1 induction, either by cholestyramine feeding in mice or adenovirus-mediated CYP7A1 expression in hepatocytes, caused strong autophagy induction. Mechanistically, we showed that CYP7A1 expression markedly attenuated growth factor/AKT signaling activation of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), but not amino acid signaling to mTOR in vitro and in vivo. Metabolomics analysis further found that CYP7A1 induction not only decreased hepatic cholesterol but also altered phospholipid and sphingolipid compositions. Collectively, these results suggest that CYP7A1 induction interferes with growth factor activation of AKT/mTOR signaling possibly by altering membrane lipid composition. Finally, we showed that cholestyramine feeding restored impaired hepatic autophagy and improved metabolic homeostasis in Western diet-fed mice. CONCLUSIONS This study identified a novel CYP7A1-AKT-mTOR signaling axis that selectively induces hepatic autophagy, which helps improve hepatocellular integrity and metabolic homeostasis.
Collapse
Key Words
- 4EBP-1, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1
- ACAT, acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase
- CE, cholesterol ester
- CQ, chloroquine
- CYP7A1, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase
- ChTM, cholestyramine
- Cholesterol
- Cholestyramine
- DIO, diet-induced obesity
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- FC, free cholesterol
- Fatty Liver
- GSK3β, glycogen synthase kinase 3β
- HMGCR, HMG-CoA reductase
- LC3, microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3
- LDLR, low-density lipoprotein receptor
- LMP, lysosome membrane permeabilization
- Nuclear Receptor
- PI, phosphatidylinositol
- PM, plasma membrane
- S6, tibosomal protein S6
- SREBP, sterol response element binding protein
- mRNA, messenger RNA
- mTOR, the nutrient sensing mechanistic target of rapamycin
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifeng Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Yifeng Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Jibiao Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Hemantkumar Chavan
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - David Matye
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Hong-Min Ni
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - John Y.L. Chiang
- Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio
| | - Partha Krishnamurthy
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Tiangang Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas,Correspondence Address correspondence to: Tiangang Li, PhD, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, Kansas 66160. fax: (913) 588-7501.Department of PharmacologyToxicology and TherapeuticsUniversity of Kansas Medical Center3901 Rainbow BoulevardKansas CityKansas 66160
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Li M, Pi H, Yang Z, Reiter RJ, Xu S, Chen X, Chen C, Zhang L, Yang M, Li Y, Guo P, Li G, Tu M, Tian L, Xie J, He M, Lu Y, Zhong M, Zhang Y, Yu Z, Zhou Z. Melatonin antagonizes cadmium-induced neurotoxicity by activating the transcription factor EB-dependent autophagy-lysosome machinery in mouse neuroblastoma cells. J Pineal Res 2016; 61:353-69. [PMID: 27396692 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd), a highly ubiquitous heavy metal, induces neurotoxicity. Melatonin, a major secretory product of the pineal gland, protects against Cd-induced neurotoxicity. However, the mechanism that accounts for this protection remains to be elucidated. Herein, we exposed mouse neuroblastoma cells (Neuro-2a cells) to different concentrations of cadmium chloride (CdCl2 ) (12.5, 25, and 50 μ mol L(-1) ) for 24 hours. We showed that Cd inhibits autophagosome-lysosome fusion and impairs lysosomal function, subsequently leading to nerve cell death. In addition, Cd decreases the level of transcription factor EB (TFEB) but induces the nuclear translocation of TFEB, associated with compromised lysosomal function or a compensatory effect after the impairment of the autophagic flux. Moreover, compared to the 50-μ mol L(-1) Cd group, administration of 1 μ mol L(-1) melatonin increased "TFEB-responsive genes" (P<.05) and the levels of lysosomal-associated membrane protein (0.57±0.06 vs 1.00±0.11, P<.05), preserved lysosomal protease activity (0.52±0.01 vs 0.90±0.02, P<.05), maintained the lysosomal pH level (0.50±0.01 vs 0.87±0.05, P<.01), and enhanced autophagosome-lysosome fusion (0.05±0.00 vs 0.21±0.01, P<.01). Notably, melatonin enhanced TFEB expression (0.37±0.04 vs 0.72±0.07, P<.05) and nuclear translocation (2.81±0.08 vs 3.82±0.05, P<.05). Tfeb siRNA blocked the melatonin-mediated elevation in autophagy-lysosome machinery in Cd-induced neurotoxicity (P<.01). Taken together, these results uncover a potent role for TFEB-mediated autophagy in the pathogenesis of Cd-induced neurotoxicity, suggesting that control of the autophagic pathway by melatonin might provide an important clue for exploring potential targets for novel therapeutics of Cd-induced neurotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Huifeng Pi
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhiqi Yang
- Brain Research Center, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, Army General Hospital in Lanzhou, Lanzhou, China
| | - Russel J Reiter
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Shangcheng Xu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaowei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Army General Hospital in Lanzhou, Lanzhou, China
| | - Chunhai Chen
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Min Yang
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuming Li
- Institute of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Pan Guo
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Neurology, Wuhan General Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Gaoming Li
- Department of Health Statistics, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Manyu Tu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jia Xie
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mindi He
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yonghui Lu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Min Zhong
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yanwen Zhang
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhengping Yu
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Zhou Zhou
- Department of Occupational Health, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hong JM, Kim SJ, Lee SM. Role of necroptosis in autophagy signaling during hepatic ischemia and reperfusion. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 308:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
|
42
|
Gong LL, Li GR, Zhang W, Liu H, Lv YL, Han FF, Wan ZR, Shi MB, Liu LH. Akebia Saponin D Decreases Hepatic Steatosis through Autophagy Modulation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 359:392-400. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.236562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
|
43
|
Han CY, Kim TH, Koo JH, Kim SG. Farnesoid X receptor as a regulator of fuel consumption and mitochondrial function. Arch Pharm Res 2016; 39:1062-74. [PMID: 27515052 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-016-0812-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance of energy homeostasis is crucial for survival of organism. There exists a close link between energy metabolism and cell survival, which are coordinately regulated by common signaling pathways. Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) serves as a ligand-mediated transcription factor to regulate diverse genes involved in bile acid, lipid, and glucose metabolism, controlling cellular and systemic energy metabolism. Another important aspect on FXR biology is related to its beneficial effect on cell survival. FXR exerts antioxidative and cytoprotective effect, which is closely associated with the ability of FXR to regulate mitochondrial function. To maintain complex biological processes under homeostasis, FXR activity needs to be dynamically and tightly controlled by different signaling pathways and modifications. In this review, we discuss the role of FXR in the regulation of energy metabolism and cell survival, with the goal of understanding molecular basis for FXR regulation in physiological and pathological conditions. This information may be of assistance in understanding recent advancements of FXR research and strategies for the prevention and treatment of metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Yeob Han
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae Hyun Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ja Hyun Koo
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Geon Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abstract
Apoptosis is a primary characteristic in the pathogenesis of liver disease. Hepatic apoptosis is regulated by autophagic activity. However, mechanisms mediating their interaction remain to be determined. Basal level of autophagy ensures the physiological turnover of old and damaged organelles. Autophagy also is an adaptive response under stressful conditions. Autophagy can control cell fate through different cross-talk signals. A complex interplay between hepatic autophagy and apoptosis determines the degree of hepatic apoptosis and the progression of liver disease as demonstrated by pre-clinical models and clinical trials. This review summarizes recent advances on roles of autophagy that plays in pathophysiology of liver. The autophagic pathway can be a novel therapeutic target for liver disease.
Collapse
Key Words
- ALT, alanine aminotransferase
- AMBRA-1, activating molecule in Beclin-1-regulated autophagy
- APAP, N-acetyl-p-aminophenol
- ATP, adenosine triphosphate
- Atg, autophagy-related gene
- BH3, Bcl-2 homology domain-3
- BNIP, Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19 kd-interacting protein
- Barkor, Beclin-1-associated autophagy-related key regulator
- Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma-2
- Bcl-xL, B-cell lymphoma extra long
- Beclin-1, Bcl-2-interacting protein-1
- CSE, cigarette smoke extract
- DISC, death-inducing signaling complex
- DNA, DNA
- DRAM, damage regulated autophagic modulator
- Drp1, dynamin-related protein 1
- ER stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress
- FADD, Fas-associated protein with death domain
- FFA, free fatty acids
- HBV, hepatitis B virus
- HBx, hepatitis B X protein
- HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma
- HCV, hepatitis C virus
- HSC, hepatic stellate cells
- LAMP-2, lysosome-associated membrane protein 2
- LD, lipid droplets
- MDBs, Mallory-Denk bodies
- MOMP, mitochondrial outer membrane permiabilization
- Microtubule LC3, microtubule light chain 3
- PCD, programmed cell death
- PI3KC3, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase class-3
- RNA, ribonucleic acid
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor-α
- TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling
- UVRAG, UV-resistance-associated gene
- Vps34, vacuolar protein sorting-34
- apoptosis
- autophagy
- c-FLIP, cellular FLICE-like inhibitor protein
- cross-talk
- liver injury
- mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin
- mechanism
- siRNA, small interfering RNA
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kewei Wang
- a Departments of Surgery; University of Illinois College of Medicine ; Peoria , IL , USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Madrigal-Matute J, Cuervo AM. Regulation of Liver Metabolism by Autophagy. Gastroenterology 2016; 150:328-39. [PMID: 26453774 PMCID: PMC4728051 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.09.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular components must be recycled for cells to maintain energy and ensure quality control of proteins and organelles. Autophagy is a highly conserved recycling process that involves degradation of cellular constituents in lysosomes. Although autophagy regulates a number of cell functions, it was first found to maintain energy balance in liver cells. As our understanding of autophagy has increased, we have found its connections to energy regulation in liver cells to be tight and complex. We review 3 mechanisms by which hepatic autophagy monitors and regulates cellular metabolism. Autophagy provides essential components (amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates) required to meet the cell's energy needs, and it also regulates energy supply by controlling the number, quality, and dynamics of the mitochondria. Finally, autophagy also modulates levels of enzymes in metabolic pathways. In light of the multiple ways in which autophagy participates to control liver metabolism, it is no surprise that dysregulation of autophagy has been associated with metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, or metabolic syndrome, as well as liver-specific disorders such as fatty liver, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. We discuss some of these connections and how hepatic autophagy might serve as a therapeutic target in common metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julio Madrigal-Matute
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Institute for Aging Studies, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Ana Maria Cuervo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Institute for Aging Studies, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Williams JA, Ding WX. A Mechanistic Review of Mitophagy and Its Role in Protection against Alcoholic Liver Disease. Biomolecules 2015; 5:2619-42. [PMID: 26501336 PMCID: PMC4693250 DOI: 10.3390/biom5042619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major health problem worldwide, and alcohol is well-known to cause mitochondrial damage, which exacerbates alcohol-induced liver injury and steatosis. No successful treatments are currently available for treating ALD. Therefore, a better understanding of mechanisms involved in regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis in the liver and how these mechanisms may protect against alcohol-induced liver disease is needed for future development of better therapeutic options for ALD. Mitophagy is a key mechanism for maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis by removing damaged mitochondria, and mitophagy protects against alcohol-induced liver injury. Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, is well-known to induce mitophagy in in vitro models although Parkin-independent mechanisms for mitophagy induction also exist. In this review, we discuss the roles of Parkin and mitophagy in protection against alcohol-induced liver injury and steatosis. We also discuss Parkin-independent mechanisms for mitophagy induction, which have not yet been evaluated in the liver but may also potentially have a protective role against ALD. In addition to mitophagy, mitochondrial spheroid formation may also provide a novel mechanism of protection against ALD, but the role of mitochondrial spheroids in protection against ALD progression needs to be further explored. Targeting removal of damaged mitochondria by mitophagy or inducing formation of mitochondrial spheroids may be promising therapeutic options for treatment of ALD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Williams
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Yan S, Zhang H, Wang J, Zheng F, Dai J. Perfluorooctanoic acid exposure induces endoplasmic reticulum stress in the liver and its effects are ameliorated by 4-phenylbutyrate. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 87:300-11. [PMID: 26159507 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.06.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are a group of widely used anthropogenic compounds. As one of the most dominant PFAAs, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) has been suggested to induce hepatotoxicity and several other toxicological effects. However, details on the mechanisms for PFOA-induced hepatotoxicity still need to be elucidated. In this study, we observed the occurrence of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in mouse livers and HepG2 cells after PFOA exposure using several familiar markers for the unfolded protein response (UPR). ER stress in HepG2 cells after PFOA exposure was not significantly influenced by autophagy inhibition or stimulation. The antioxidant defense system was significantly disturbed in mouse livers after PFOA exposure, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were increased in cells exposed to PFOA for 24 h. However, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) pretreatment did not satisfactorily alleviate the UPR in cells exposed to PFOA even though the increase of ROS was less evident. Furthermore, exposure of HepG2 cells to PFOA in the presence of sodium 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA), a chemical chaperone and ER stress inhibitor, suggested that 4-PBA alleviated the UPR and autophagosome accumulation induced by PFOA in cells. In addition, several toxicological effects attributed to PFOA exposure, including cell cycle arrest, proteolytic activity impairment, and neutral lipid accumulation, were also improved by 4-PBA cotreatment in cells. In vivo study demonstrated that PFOA-induced lipid metabolism perturbation and liver injury were partially ameliorated by 4-PBA in mice after 28 days of exposure. These findings demonstrated that PFOA-induced ER stress leading to UPR might play an important role in PFOA-induced hepatotoxic effects, and chemical chaperone 4-PBA could ameliorate the effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shengmin Yan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianshe Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Fei Zheng
- Shanxi Key Laboratory of Ecological Animal Science and Environmental Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiayin Dai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Williams JA, Ding WX. Mitophagy, mitochondrial spheroids, and mitochondrial-derived vesicles in alcohol-induced liver injury. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2015; 309:G515. [PMID: 26374876 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00264.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Williams
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Zhang Z, Guo M, Zhao S, Xu W, Shao J, Zhang F, Wu L, Lu Y, Zheng S. The update on transcriptional regulation of autophagy in normal and pathologic cells: A novel therapeutic target. Biomed Pharmacother 2015; 74:17-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
|
50
|
Elucidating Metabolic and Epigenetic Mechanisms that Regulate Liver Regeneration. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40139-015-0065-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|