Pathogenic and Genetic Variation in the Japanese Strains of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis

Two structurally different oomycete lipophilic microbe-associated molecular patterns induce distinctive plant immune responses

Plants recognize a variety of external signals and induce appropriate mechanisms to increase their tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Precise recognition of attacking pathogens and induction of effective resistance mechanisms are critical functions for plant survival. Some molecular patterns unique to a certain group of microbes, microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), are sensed by plant cells as nonself molecules via pattern recognition receptors. While MAMPs of bacterial and fungal origin have been identified, reports on oomycete MAMPs are relatively limited. This study aimed to identify MAMPs from an oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans, the causal agent of potato late blight. Using reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and phytoalexin production in potato (Solanum tuberosum) as markers, two structurally different groups of elicitors, namely ceramides and diacylglycerols, were identified. P. infestans ceramides (Pi-Cer A, B, and D) induced ROS production, while diacylglycerol (Pi-DAG A and B), containing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) as a substructure, induced phytoalexins production in potato. The molecular patterns in Pi-Cers and Pi-DAGs essential for defense induction were identified as 9-methyl-4,8-sphingadienine (9Me-Spd) and 5,8,11,14-tetraene-type fatty acid (5,8,11,14-TEFA), respectively. These structures are not found in plants, but in oomycetes and fungi, indicating that they are microbe molecular patterns recognized by plants. When Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) was treated with Pi-Cer D and EPA, partially overlapping but different sets of genes were induced. Furthermore, expression of some genes is upregulated only after the simultaneous treatment with Pi-Cer D and EPA, indicating that plants combine the signals from simultaneously recognized MAMPs to adapt their defense response to pathogens.

A Novel Strain of Fusarium oxysporum Alternavirus 1 Isolated from Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis Strain T-BJ17 Confers Hypovirulence and Increases the Sensitivity of Its Host Fungus to Difenoconazole and Pydiflumetofen

In the current study, a novel strain of Fusarium oxysporum alternavirus 1 (FoAV1) was identified from the Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (FOM) strain T-BJ17 and was designated as Fusarium oxysporum alternavirus 1-FOM (FoAV1-FOM). Its genome consists of four dsRNA segments of 3515 bp (dsRNA1), 2663 bp (dsRNA2), 2368 bp (dsRNA3), and 1776 bp (dsRNA4) in length. Open reading frame 1 (ORF1) in dsRNA1 was found to encode a putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), whose amino acid sequence was 99.02% identical to that of its counterpart in FoAV1; while ORF2 in dsRNA2, ORF3 in dsRNA3, and ORF4 in dsRNA4 were all found to encode hypothetical proteins. Strain T-BJ17-VF, which was verified to FoAV1-FOM-free, was obtained using single-hyphal-tip culture combined with high-temperature treatment to eliminate FoAV1-FOM from strain T-BJ17. The colony growth rate, ability to produce spores, and virulence of strain T-BJ17 were significantly lower than those of T-BJ17-VF, while the dry weight of the mycelial biomass and the sensitivity to difenoconazole and pydiflumetofen of strain T-BJ17 were greater than those of T-BJ17-VF. FoAV1-FOM was capable of 100% vertical transmission via spores. To our knowledge, this is the first time that an alternavirus has infected FOM, and this is the first report of hypovirulence and increased sensitivity to difenoconazole and pydiflumetofen induced by FoAV1-FOM infection in FOM.

Complete genome sequence of a novel mitovirus identified in the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis strain T-SD3

A novel mitovirus was identified in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis strain T-SD3 and designated as "Fusarium oxysporum mitovirus 3" (FoMV3). The virus was isolated from diseased muskmelon plants with the typical symptom of fusarium wilt. The complete genome of FoMV3 is 2269 nt in length with a predicted AU content of 61.40% and contains a single open reading frame (ORF) using the fungal mitochondrial genetic code. The ORF was predicted to encode a polypeptide of 679 amino acids (aa) containing a conserved RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain with a molecular mass of 77.39 kDa, which contains six conserved motifs with the highly conserved GDD tripeptide in motif IV. The 5'-untranslated region (UTR) and 3'-UTR of FoMV3 were predicted to fold into stem-loop structures. BLASTp analysis revealed that the RdRp of FoMV3 shared the highest aa sequence identity (83.85%) with that of Fusarium asiaticum mitovirus 5 (FaMV5, a member of the family Mitoviridae) infecting F. asiaticum, the causal agent of wheat fusarium head blight. Phylogenetic analysis further suggested that FoMV3 is a new member of the genus Unuamitovirus within the family Mitoviridae. This is the first report of a new mitovirus associated with F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Fusarium oxysporum Stress-Induced Pathosystem and Screening of Fom-2 Interaction Factors in Contrasted Melon Plants

Fusarium wilt is one of the most destructive and less controllable diseases in melon, which is usually caused by fusarium oxysporum. In this study, transcriptome sequencing and Yeast Two-Hybrid (Y2H) methods were used for quantification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in fusarium oxysporum (f. sp. melonis race 1) stress-induced mechanisms in contrasted melon varieties (M4-45 "susceptible" and MR-1 "resistant"). The interaction factors of Fom-2 resistance genes were also explored in response to the plant-pathogen infection mechanism. Transcriptomic analysis exhibited total 1,904 new genes; however, candidate DEGs analysis revealed a total of 144 specific genes (50 upregulated and 94 downregulated) for M4-45 variety and 104 specific genes (71 upregulated and 33 downregulated) for MR-1 variety, respectively. The analysis of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway depicted some candidate DEGs, including Phenylalanine metabolism, phenylpropane biosynthesis, plants-pathogen interaction, and signal transduction of plant hormones, which were mainly involved in disease resistance metabolic pathways. The weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) analysis revealed a strong correlation module and exhibited the disease resistance-related genes encoding course proteins, transcription factors, protein kinase, benzene propane biosynthesis path, plants-pathogen interaction pathway, and glutathione S-transferase. Meanwhile, the resistance-related specific genes expression was relatively abundant in MR-1 compared to the M4-45, and cell wall-associated receptor kinases (MELO3C008452 and MELO3C008453), heat shock protein (Cucumis_melo_newGene_172), defensin-like protein (Cucumis_melo_newGene_5490), and disease resistance response protein (MELO3C016325), activator response protein (MELO3C021623), leucine-rich repeat receptor protein kinase (MELO3C024412), lactyl glutathione ligase (Cucumis_melo_newGene_36), and unknown protein (MELO3C007588) were persisted by exhibiting the upregulated expressions. At the transcription level, the interaction factors between the candidate genes in response to the fusarium oxysporum induced stress, and Y2H screening signified the main contribution of MYB transcription factors (MELO3C009678 and MELO3C014597), BZIP (MELO3C011839 and MELO3C019349), unknown proteins, and key enzymes in the ubiquitination process (4XM334FK014). The candidate genes were further verified in exogenously treated melon plants with f. oxysporum (Fom-2, Race 1), Abscisic acid (ABA), Methyl Jasmonite (MeJA), and Salicylic acid (SA), using the fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. The overall expression results indicated that the SA signal pathway is involved in effective regulation of the Fom-2 gene activity.

Comparative genomics of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis strains reveals nine lineages and a new sequence type of AvrFom2

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (Fom) is one of the most important pathogens of melon worldwide. In this study, we investigated the genomic diversity of Fom. One of the aims was to find clues for the origin(s) and dispersal of clonal lineages and races of Fom. We therefore included a large number of Fom strains from Iran, where melon has been cultivated for at least 5000 years. In 33 new genome sequences of Fom strains from different geographical regions of Iran and across the world, 40 new candidate effector genes were identified. Presence/absence of candidate effector genes and phylogenetic analyses resolved nine Fom lineages. The presence of a highly similar set of effector genes in some distant lineages is suggestive of horizontal chromosome transfer, a process known to occur in the Fusarium oxysporum species complex. Race 1.2, which breaks both Fom1 and Fom2 resistance genes, occurs in three of the nine lineages, two of which are predominant in Iran. We also identified a new sequence type of the AVRFom2 avirulence gene in one lineage. Expression of this sequence type during melon infection and genetic complementation suggest that this sequence type is not recognized by the Fom2 resistance protein.

Epitypification of Fusarium oxysporum - clearing the taxonomic chaos

Fusarium oxysporum is the most economically important and commonly encountered species of Fusarium. This soil-borne fungus is known to harbour both pathogenic (plant, animal and human) and non-pathogenic strains. However, in its current concept F. oxysporum is a species complex consisting of numerous cryptic species. Identification and naming these cryptic species is complicated by multiple subspecific classification systems and the lack of living ex-type material to serve as basic reference point for phylogenetic inference. Therefore, to advance and stabilise the taxonomic position of F. oxysporum as a species and allow naming of the multiple cryptic species recognised in this species complex, an epitype is designated for F. oxysporum. Using multi-locus phylogenetic inference and subtle morphological differences with the newly established epitype of F. oxysporum as reference point, 15 cryptic taxa are resolved in this study and described as species.

Fow2, a Zn(II)2Cys6-type transcription regulator, controls plant infection of the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum

The filamentous fungus Fusarium oxysporum is a soil-borne parasite that causes vascular wilts in a wide variety of crops by directly penetrating roots and colonizing the vascular tissue. In previous work, we generated the non-pathogenic mutant B137 of the melon wilt pathogen F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis by using restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI) mutagenesis. Molecular characterization of B137 revealed that this mutant has a single-copy plasmid insertion in a gene, designated FOW2, which encodes a putative transcription regulator belonging to the Zn(II)2Cys6 family. The REMI mutant B137 and other FOW2-targeted mutants completely lost pathogenicity, but were not impaired in vegetative growth and conidiation in cultures. Microscopic observation of infection behaviours of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-marked wild-type and mutant strains revealed that the mutants were defective in their abilities to invade roots and colonize plant tissues. FOW2 is conserved in F. oxysporum pathogens that infect different plants. The FOW2-targeted mutants of the tomato wilt pathogen F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici also lost pathogenicity. Nuclear localization of Fow2 was verified using strains expressing Fow2-GFP and GFP-Fow2 fusion proteins. These data strongly suggest that FOW2 encodes a transcription regulator controlling the plant infection capability of F. oxysporum pathogens.

Molecular Characterization of Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium commune Isolates from a Conifer Nursery

ABSTRACT Fusarium species can cause severe root disease and damping-off in conifer nurseries. Fusarium inoculum is commonly found in most container and bareroot nurseries on healthy and diseased seedlings, in nursery soils, and on conifer seeds. Isolates of Fusarium spp. can differ in virulence; however, virulence and colony morphology are not correlated. Forty-one isolates of Fusarium spp., morphologically indistinguishable from F. oxysporum, were collected from nursery samples (soils, healthy seedlings, and diseased seedlings). These isolates were characterized by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and DNA sequencing of nuclear rDNA (internal transcribed spacer including 5.8S rDNA), mitochon-drial rDNA (small subunit [mtSSU]), and nuclear translation elongation factor 1-alpha. Each isolate had a unique AFLP phenotype. Out of 121 loci, 111 (92%) were polymorphic; 30 alleles were unique to only highly virulent isolates and 33 alleles were unique to only isolates nonpathogenic on conifers. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses of DNA sequences from all three regions and the combined data set showed that all highly virulent isolates clearly separated into a common clade that contained F. commune, which was recently distinguished from its sister taxon, F. oxysporum. Interestingly, all but one of the nonpathogenic isolates grouped into a common clade and were genetically similar to F. oxysporum. The AFLP cladograms had similar topologies when compared with the DNA-based phylograms. Although all tested isolates were morphologically indistinguishable from F. oxysporum based on currently available monographs, some morphological traits can be plastic and unreliable for identification of Fusarium spp. We consider the highly virulent isolates to be F. commune based on strong genetic evidence. To our knowledge, this is the first reported evidence that shows F. commune is a cause of Fusarium disease (root rot and dampingoff) on Douglas-fir seedlings. Furthermore, several AFLP genetic markers and mtSSU sequences offer potential for development of molecular markers that could be used to detect and distinguish isolates of F. oxysporum nonpathogenic to conifers and highly virulent isolates of F. commune in forest nurseries.

Cerebroside elicitor confers resistance to fusarium disease in various plant species

ABSTRACT In the rice blast fungus pathosystem, cerebroside, a compound categorized as a sphingolipid, was found in our previous study to be a non-racespecific elicitor, which elicits defense responses in rice. Here we describe that cerebroside C is produced in diverse strains of Fusarium oxysporum, a common soilborne agent of wilt disease affecting a wide range of plant species. In addition, some type of cerebroside elicitor involving cerebroside A, B, or C was detected in other soilborne phytopathogens, such as Pythium and Botrytis. Treatment of lettuce (Lactuca sativa), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), melon (Cucumis melo), and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) with cerebroside B resulted in resistance to infection by each pathogenic strain of F. oxysporum. Induction of pathogenesis-related genes and H(2)O(2) production by treatment with cerebroside B were observed in tomato root tissues. The cerebroside elicitor showed no antifungal activity against F. oxysporum in vitro, indicating that the cerebroside elicitor activates defense mechanisms to confer resistance to Fusarium disease. These results suggest that cerebroside functions as a non-race-specific elicitor in a wide range of plant-phytopathogenic fungus interactions. Additionally, cerebroside elicitor serves as a potential biologically derived control agent.

Resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis Race 1,2 in Muskmelon Lines Nad-1 and Nad-2

Of seven doubled-haploid melon lines parthenogenetically originated using irradiated pollen, two lines, Nad-1 and Nad-2, were selected for resistance to Fusarium wilt after successive inoculations with F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis race 1,2w virulent isolate. Nad-1 and Nad-2 were compared with the commercial hybrids and with the parent cvs. Isabelle and Giallo di Paceco. Evaluation of germplasm extended over a 2-year period showed a higher resistance of Nad-1 and Nad-2 plants to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis race 1,2 than other genotypes tested in this study. The resistance expressed in the two doubled-haploid lines could be due to their homozygous state that maximizes the expression of the genes for resistance already present in the parental line Isabelle. The use of this source of resistance may be exploited commercially either in rootstocks or to facilitate breeding for F1 hybrids. Future research will concentrate on the identification of genetic markers associated with resistance to race 1,2 using these doubledhaploid lines.

Mutation of an arginine biosynthesis gene causes reduced pathogenicity in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis

Restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI) mutagenesis was used to tag genes required for pathogenicity of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis. Of the 1,129 REMI transformants tested, 13 showed reduced pathogenicity on susceptible melon cultivars. One of the mutants, FMMP95-1, was an arginine auxotroph. Structural analysis of the tagged site in FMMP95-1 identified a gene, designated ARG1, which possibly encodes argininosuccinate lyase, catalyzing the last step for arginine biosynthesis. Complementation of FMMP95-1 with the ARG1 gene caused a recovery in pathogenicity, indicating that arginine auxotrophic mutation causes reduced pathogenicity in this pathogen.