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Sperm Lipid Markers of Male Fertility in Mammals. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168767. [PMID: 34445473 PMCID: PMC8395862 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sperm plasma membrane lipids are essential for the function and integrity of mammalian spermatozoa. Various lipid types are involved in each key step within the fertilization process in their own yet coordinated way. The balance between lipid metabolism is tightly regulated to ensure physiological cellular processes, especially referring to crucial steps such as sperm motility, capacitation, acrosome reaction or fusion. At the same time, it has been shown that male reproductive function depends on the homeostasis of sperm lipids. Here, we review the effects of phospholipid, neutral lipid and glycolipid homeostasis on sperm fertilization function and male fertility in mammals.
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Li L, Zhang L, Zhang Z, Keyhani NO, Xin Q, Miao Z, Zhu Z, Wang Z, Qiu J, Zheng N. Comparative transcriptome and histomorphology analysis of testis tissues from mulard and Pekin ducks. Arch Anim Breed 2020; 63:303-313. [PMID: 32964101 PMCID: PMC7500171 DOI: 10.5194/aab-63-303-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Testicular transcriptomes were analyzed to characterize the
differentially expressed genes between mulard and Pekin ducks, which will
help establish gene expression datasets to assist in further determination
of the mechanisms of genetic sterility in mulard ducks. Paraffin sections
were made to compare the developmental differences in testis tissue between
mulard and Pekin ducks. Comparative transcriptome sequencing of testis
tissues was performed, and the expression of candidate genes was verified by
quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). In
mulard ducks, spermatogonia and spermatocytes were arranged in a disordered
manner, and no mature sperm were observed in the testis tissue. However,
different stages of development of sperm were observed in seminiferous
tubules in the testis tissue of Pekin ducks. A total of 43.84 Gb of clean
reads were assembled into 193 535 UniGenes. Of these, 2131 transcripts
exhibited differential expression (false discover rate <0.001 and
fold change ≥2), including 997 upregulated and 1134 downregulated
transcripts in mulard ducks as compared to those in Pekin duck testis
tissues. Several upregulated genes were related to reproductive functions,
including ryanodine receptor 2 (RYR2), calmodulin (CALM), argininosuccinate
synthase and delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase ALDH18A1 (P5CS).
Downregulated transcripts included the testis-specific
serine/threonine-protein kinase 3, aquaporin-7 (AQP7) and glycerol kinase
GlpK (GK). The 10 related transcripts involved in the developmental biological
process were identified by GO (Gene Ontology) annotation. The KEGG (Kyoto
Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways indicated that peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and calcium signaling pathways were
significantly (P<0.001) associated with normal testis physiology.
The differential expression of select genes implicated in reproductive
processes was verified by qRT-PCR, which was consistent with the expression
trend of transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq). Differentially expressed candidate genes RYR2, CALM, P5CS,
AQP7 and GK were identified by transcriptional analysis in mulard and Pekin
duck testes. These were important for the normal development of the male
duck reproductive system. These data provide a framework for the further
exploration of the molecular and genetic mechanisms of sterility in mulard
ducks.
Highlights. The mulard duck is an intergeneric sterile hybrid
offspring resulting from mating between Muscovy and Pekin ducks. The
transcriptomes of testis tissue from mulard and Pekin ducks were
systematically characterized, and differentially expressed genes were screened, in
order to gain insights into potential gonad gene expression mechanisms
contributing to genetic sterility in mulard ducks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.,Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
| | - Linli Zhang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
| | - Zhenghong Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, China
| | - Nemat O Keyhani
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Qingwu Xin
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
| | - Zhongwei Miao
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
| | - Zhiming Zhu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
| | - Zhengchao Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, China
| | - Junzhi Qiu
- College of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Nenzhu Zheng
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou 350013, China
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Gómez-Torres MJ, García EM, Guerrero J, Medina S, Izquierdo-Rico MJ, Gil-Izquierdo Á, Orduna J, Savirón M, González-Brusi L, Ten J, Bernabeu R, Avilés M. Metabolites involved in cellular communication among human cumulus-oocyte-complex and sperm during in vitro fertilization. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2015; 13:123. [PMID: 26553294 PMCID: PMC4640411 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-015-0118-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fertilization is a key physiological process for the preservation of the species. Consequently, different mechanisms affecting the sperm and the oocyte have been developed to ensure a successful fertilization. Thus, sperm acrosome reaction is necessary for the egg coat penetration and sperm-oolema fusion. Several molecules are able to induce the sperm acrosome reaction; however, this process should be produced coordinately in time and in the space to allow the success of fertilization between gametes. The goal of this study was to analyze the metabolites secreted by cumulus-oocyte-complex (COC) to find out new components that could contribute to the induction of the human sperm acrosome reaction and other physiological processes at the time of gamete interaction and fertilization. METHODS For the metabolomic analysis, eighteen aliquots of medium were used in each group, containing: a) only COC before insemination and after 3 h of incubation; b) COC and capacitated spermatozoa after insemination and incubated for 16-20 hours; c) only capacitated sperm after 16-20 h in culture and d) only fertilization medium as control. Six patients undergoing assisted reproduction whose male partners provided normozoospermic samples were included in the study. Seventy-two COC were inseminated. RESULTS The metabolites identified were monoacylglycerol (MAG), lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and phytosphingosine (PHS). Analysis by PCR and in silico of the gene expression strongly suggests that the cumulus cells contribute to the formation of the PHS and LPC. CONCLUSIONS LPC and PHS are secreted by cumulus cells during in vitro fertilization and they could be involved in the induction of human acrosome reaction (AR). The identification of new molecules with a paracrine effect on oocytes, cumulus cells and spermatozoa will provide a better understanding of gamete interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Gómez-Torres
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Alicante, 99, Carretera de San Vicente s/n, Alicante, 03016, Spain.
| | - Eva María García
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Alicante, 99, Carretera de San Vicente s/n, Alicante, 03016, Spain
- Instituto Bernabeu of Fertility and Gynecology, Alicante, 03016, Spain
| | - Jaime Guerrero
- Instituto Bernabeu of Fertility and Gynecology, Alicante, 03016, Spain
| | - Sonia Medina
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Food Science and Technology Department, CEBAS-CSIC, Espinardo (Murcia), Spain
| | - María José Izquierdo-Rico
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, Espinardo 30100 and IMIB, Murcia, Spain
| | - Ángel Gil-Izquierdo
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Food Science and Technology Department, CEBAS-CSIC, Espinardo (Murcia), Spain
| | - Jesús Orduna
- Institute of Materials Science of Aragon, CSIC-University of Zaragoza, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - María Savirón
- Institute of Materials Science of Aragon, CSIC-University of Zaragoza, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Leopoldo González-Brusi
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, Espinardo 30100 and IMIB, Murcia, Spain
| | - Jorge Ten
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Alicante, 99, Carretera de San Vicente s/n, Alicante, 03016, Spain
- Instituto Bernabeu of Fertility and Gynecology, Alicante, 03016, Spain
| | - Rafael Bernabeu
- Instituto Bernabeu of Fertility and Gynecology, Alicante, 03016, Spain
| | - Manuel Avilés
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, Espinardo 30100 and IMIB, Murcia, Spain
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Ramanadham S, Ali T, Ashley JW, Bone RN, Hancock WD, Lei X. Calcium-independent phospholipases A2 and their roles in biological processes and diseases. J Lipid Res 2015; 56:1643-68. [PMID: 26023050 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r058701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the family of phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are the Ca(2+)-independent PLA2s (iPLA2s) and they are designated group VI iPLA2s. In relation to secretory and cytosolic PLA2s, the iPLA2s are more recently described and details of their expression and roles in biological functions are rapidly emerging. The iPLA2s or patatin-like phospholipases (PNPLAs) are intracellular enzymes that do not require Ca(2+) for activity, and contain lipase (GXSXG) and nucleotide-binding (GXGXXG) consensus sequences. Though nine PNPLAs have been recognized, PNPLA8 (membrane-associated iPLA2γ) and PNPLA9 (cytosol-associated iPLA2β) are the most widely studied and understood. The iPLA2s manifest a variety of activities in addition to phospholipase, are ubiquitously expressed, and participate in a multitude of biological processes, including fat catabolism, cell differentiation, maintenance of mitochondrial integrity, phospholipid remodeling, cell proliferation, signal transduction, and cell death. As might be expected, increased or decreased expression of iPLA2s can have profound effects on the metabolic state, CNS function, cardiovascular performance, and cell survival; therefore, dysregulation of iPLA2s can be a critical factor in the development of many diseases. This review is aimed at providing a general framework of the current understanding of the iPLA2s and discussion of the potential mechanisms of action of the iPLA2s and related involved lipid mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasanka Ramanadham
- Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Tomader Ali
- Undergraduate Research Office, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Jason W Ashley
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Robert N Bone
- Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - William D Hancock
- Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
| | - Xiaoyong Lei
- Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294 Comprehensive Diabetes Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294
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Protein profile and functionality of spermatozoa from two semen collection methods in Bali bulls. Livest Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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6
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Park YJ, Kim J, You YA, Pang MG. Proteomic Revolution to Improve Tools for Evaluating Male Fertility in Animals. J Proteome Res 2013; 12:4738-47. [DOI: 10.1021/pr400639x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoo-Jin Park
- Department
of Animal Science
and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 456-756, Korea
| | - Jin Kim
- Department
of Animal Science
and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 456-756, Korea
| | - Young-Ah You
- Department
of Animal Science
and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 456-756, Korea
| | - Myung-Geol Pang
- Department
of Animal Science
and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-do 456-756, Korea
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Xu H, Kongmanas K, Kadunganattil S, Smith CE, Rupar T, Goto-Inoue N, Hermo L, Faull KF, Tanphaichitr N. Arylsulfatase A deficiency causes seminolipid accumulation and a lysosomal storage disorder in Sertoli cells. J Lipid Res 2011; 52:2187-2197. [PMID: 21965315 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m019661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfogalactosylglycerolipid (SGG) is the major sulfoglycolipid of male germ cells. During spermatogenesis, apoptosis occurs in >50% of total germ cells. Sertoli cells phagocytose these apoptotic germ cells and degrade their components using lysosomal enzymes. Here we demonstrated that SGG was a physiological substrate of Sertoli lysosomal arylsulfatase A (ARSA). SGG accumulated in Sertoli cells of Arsa(-/-) mice, and at 8 months of age, this buildup led to lysosomal swelling and other cellular abnormalities typical of a lysosomal storage disorder. This disorder likely compromised Sertoli cell functions, manifesting as impaired spermatogenesis and production of sperm with near-zero fertilizing ability in vitro. Fecundity of Arsa(-/-) males was thus reduced when they were older than 5 months. Sperm SGG is known for its roles in fertilization. Therefore, the minimal sperm fertilizing ability of 8-month-old Arsa(-/-) males may be explained by the 50% reduction of their sperm SGG levels, a result that was also observed in testicular germ cells. These unexpected decreases in SGG levels might be partly due to depletion of the backbone lipid palmitylpalmitoylglycerol that is generated from the SGG degradation pathway in Sertoli cells and normally recycled to new generations of primary spermatocytes for SGG synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbin Xu
- Chronic Diseases Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1Y4E9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry/Microbiology/Immunology University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Kessiri Kongmanas
- Chronic Diseases Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1Y4E9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry/Microbiology/Immunology University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Suraj Kadunganattil
- Chronic Diseases Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1Y4E9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry/Microbiology/Immunology University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada; Department of Obstetrics/Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada
| | - Charles E Smith
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A2B2, Canada
| | - Tony Rupar
- Departments of Pediatrics University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A5W9, Canada; Biochemistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A5W9, Canada
| | - Naoko Goto-Inoue
- Department of Molecular Anatomy, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Shizuoka 431-3192, Japan; and
| | - Louis Hermo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A2B2, Canada
| | - Kym F Faull
- Pasarow Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, NPI-Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90024
| | - Nongnuj Tanphaichitr
- Chronic Diseases Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1Y4E9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry/Microbiology/Immunology University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada; Department of Obstetrics/Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON K1H8M5, Canada.
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8
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Caballero J, Frenette G, Sullivan R. Post testicular sperm maturational changes in the bull: important role of the epididymosomes and prostasomes. Vet Med Int 2010; 2011:757194. [PMID: 20981306 PMCID: PMC2958493 DOI: 10.4061/2011/757194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Accepted: 08/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
After spermatogenesis, testicular spermatozoa are not able to fertilize an oocyte, they must undergo sequential maturational processes. Part of these essential processes occurs during the transit of the spermatozoa through the male reproductive tract. Since the sperm become silent in terms of translation and transcription at the testicular level, all the maturational changes that take place on them are dependent on the interaction of spermatozoa with epididymal and accessory gland fluids. During the last decades, reproductive biotechnologies applied to bovine species have advanced significantly. The knowledge of the bull reproductive physiology is really important for the improvement of these techniques and the development of new ones. This paper focuses on the importance of the sperm interaction with the male reproductive fluids to acquire the fertilizing ability, with special attention to the role of the membranous vesicles present in those fluids and the recent mechanisms of protein acquisition during sperm maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieta Caballero
- Département d'Obstétrique-Gynéologie, Faculté de Médecine, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval (CHUQ), Université Laval, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, T1-49, Quebec City, QC, Canada G1V 4G2
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Escoffier J, Jemel I, Tanemoto A, Taketomi Y, Payre C, Coatrieux C, Sato H, Yamamoto K, Masuda S, Pernet-Gallay K, Pierre V, Hara S, Murakami M, De Waard M, Lambeau G, Arnoult C. Group X phospholipase A2 is released during sperm acrosome reaction and controls fertility outcome in mice. J Clin Invest 2010; 120:1415-28. [PMID: 20424324 DOI: 10.1172/jci40494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2009] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ejaculated mammalian sperm must undergo a maturation process called capacitation before they are able to fertilize an egg. Several studies have suggested a role for members of the secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) family in capacitation, acrosome reaction (AR), and fertilization, but the molecular nature of these enzymes and their specific roles have remained elusive. Here, we have demonstrated that mouse group X sPLA2 (mGX) is the major enzyme present in the acrosome of spermatozoa and that it is released in an active form during capacitation through spontaneous AR. mGX-deficient male mice produced smaller litters than wild-type male siblings when crossed with mGX-deficient females. Further analysis revealed that spermatozoa from mGX-deficient mice exhibited lower rates of spontaneous AR and that this was associated with decreased in vitro fertilization (IVF) efficiency due to a drop in the fertilization potential of the sperm and an increased rate of aborted embryos. Treatment of sperm with sPLA2 inhibitors and antibodies specific for mGX blocked spontaneous AR of wild-type sperm and reduced IVF success. Addition of lysophosphatidylcholine, a catalytic product of mGX, overcame these deficiencies. Finally, recombinant mGX triggered AR and improved IVF outcome. Taken together, our results highlight a paracrine role for mGX during capacitation in which the enzyme primes sperm for efficient fertilization and boosts premature AR of a likely phospholipid-damaged sperm subpopulation to eliminate suboptimal sperm from the pool available for fertilization.
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Kawano N, Ito J, Kashiwazaki N, Yoshida M. Phosphorylation of the MAPK Pathway has an Essential Role in the Acrosome Reaction in Miniature Pig Sperm. Reprod Domest Anim 2010; 45:263-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2008.01279.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Escoffier J, Couvet M, de Pomyers H, Ray PF, Sève M, Lambeau G, De Waard M, Arnoult C. Snake venoms as a source of compounds modulating sperm physiology: Secreted phospholipases A2 from Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus impact sperm motility, acrosome reaction and in vitro fertilization in mice. Biochimie 2010; 92:826-36. [PMID: 20226834 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to identify new compounds from venoms able to modulate sperm physiology and more particularly sperm motility. For this purpose, we screened the effects of 16 snake venoms cleared of molecules higher than 15 kDa on sperm motility. Venoms rich in neurotoxins like those from Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus or Daboia russelii, were highly potent inhibitors of sperm motility. In contrast, venoms rich in myotoxins like those from Echis carinatus, Bothrops alternatus and Macrovipera lebetina, were inactive. From the main pharmacologically-active fraction of the Taipan snake O. scutellatus s., a proteomic approach allowed us to identify 16 different proteins, among which OS1 and OS2, two secreted phospholipases A2 (sPLA(2)). Purified OS1 and OS2 mimicked the inhibitory effect on sperm motility and were likely responsible for the inhibitory effect of the active fraction. OS1 and OS2 triggered sperm acrosome reaction and induced lipid rearrangements of the plasma membrane. The catalytic activity of OS2 was required to modulate sperm physiology since catalytically inactive mutants had no effect. Finally, sperm treated with OS2 were less competent than control sperm to initiate in vitro normal embryo development. This is the first report characterizing sPLA(2) toxins that modulate in vitro sperm physiology.
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Brewis IA, Van Gestel RA, Gadella BM, Jones R, Publicover SJ, Roldan ERS, Frayne J, Barratt CLR. The spermatozoon at fertilisation: Current understanding and future research directions. HUM FERTIL 2009; 8:241-51. [PMID: 16393824 DOI: 10.1080/14647270500420160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian A Brewis
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Unit & Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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13
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Ni Y, Zhou Y, Chen WY, Zheng M, Yu J, Li C, Zhang Y, Shi QX. HongrES1, a cauda epididymis-specific protein, is involved in capacitation of guinea pig sperm. Mol Reprod Dev 2009; 76:984-93. [DOI: 10.1002/mrd.21063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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14
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Signal transduction pathways that regulate sperm capacitation and the acrosome reaction. Arch Biochem Biophys 2009; 485:72-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 02/06/2009] [Accepted: 02/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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15
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MAO QIAN, HOU XUELI, XIAO PING, YING XIANPING, HE LIN, WANG QUN. Identification of proteins from the accessory sex gland ofEriocheir sinensisby two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. INVERTEBR REPROD DEV 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/07924259.2009.9652300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Leßig J, Reibetanz U, Arnhold J, Glander HJ. Destabilization of acrosome and elastase influence mediate the release of secretory phospholipase A2from human spermatozoa. Asian J Androl 2008; 10:829-36. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2008.00440.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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17
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Chen WY, Xu WM, Chen ZH, Ni Y, Yuan YY, Zhou SC, Zhou WW, Tsang LL, Chung YW, Höglund P, Chan HC, Shi QX. Cl- is required for HCO3- entry necessary for sperm capacitation in guinea pig: involvement of a Cl-/HCO3- exchanger (SLC26A3) and CFTR. Biol Reprod 2008; 80:115-23. [PMID: 18784352 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.108.068528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous study demonstrated the involvement of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) in transporting bicarbonate that is necessary for sperm capacitation; however, whether its involvement is direct or indirect remains unclear. The present study investigated the possibility of a Cl-/HCO3- exchanger (solute carrier family 26, number 3 [SLC26A3]) operating with CFTR during guinea pig sperm capacitation. Incubating sperm in media with various concentrations of Cl- resulted in varied percentages of capacitated sperm in a concentration-dependent manner. Depletion of Cl-, even in the presence of HCO3-, abolished sperm capacitation and vice versa, indicating the involvement of both anions in the process. Capacitation-associated HCO3--dependent events, including increased intracellular pH, cAMP production, and protein tyrosine phosphorylation, also depend on Cl- concentrations. Similar Cl- dependence and inhibitor sensitivity were observed for sperm-hyperactivated motility and for sperm-egg fusion. The expression and localization of CFTR and SLC26A3 were demonstrated using immunostaining and Western blot analysis. Taken together, our results indicate that Cl- is required for the entry of HCO3- that is necessary for sperm capacitation, implicating the involvement of SLC26A3 in transporting HCO3-, with CFTR providing the recycling pathway for Cl-.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ying Chen
- Unit of Reproductive Physiology, Institute of Reproductive Health, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou 310013, China
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18
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Wang Z, Shi QX, Wang YN, Wang YL, Zhang SY. Epididymal sperm storage in Rickett's big-footed bat (Myotis ricketti). ACTA CHIROPTEROLOGICA 2008. [DOI: 10.3161/150811008x331180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Moura AA, Chapman DA, Koc H, Killian GJ. A comprehensive proteomic analysis of the accessory sex gland fluid from mature Holstein bulls. Anim Reprod Sci 2007; 98:169-88. [PMID: 16713141 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2006.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Accepted: 03/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The expression of proteins in accessory sex gland fluid (AGF) of proven, high use mature Holstein bulls was evaluated. Thirty-seven bulls with documented fertility based on their non-return rates were studied. AGF was obtained by artificial vagina after bulls were surgically equipped with cannulae in the vasa deferentia. Samples of AGF were evaluated by two-dimensional SDS-PAGE, gels stained with Coomassie blue and polypeptide maps analyzed by PDQuest software. A master gel generated by the software representing the best pattern of spots in the AGF polypeptide maps was used as a reference for protein identification. Proteins were identified by Western blots and capillary liquid chromatography-nanoelectrospray ionization tandem-mass spectrometry (CapLC-MS/MS). The product ion spectra were processed using Protein Lynx Global Server 2.1 prior to database search with both PLGS and MASCOT (Matrix Science) software. The entire NCBI database was considered for mass fingerprint matching. An average of 52+/-5 spots was detected in the AGF 2D gels, which corresponded to proteins potentially involved in capacitation (bovine seminal plasma protein-BSP-A1/A2 and A3, BSP 30 kDa, albumin); sperm membrane protection, prevention of oxidative stress, complement-mediated sperm destruction and anti-microbial activity (albumin, clusterin, acidic seminal fluid protein--aSFP, 5'-nucleotidase--5'-NT, phospholipase A2--PLA2); acrosome reaction and sperm-oocyte interaction (PLA2, osteopontin); interaction with the extracellular matrix (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2, clusterin) and sperm motility (aSFP, spermadhesin Z13, 5'-NT). The 20 spots distinguished in all gels were matched to proteins associated with these functions. Proteins identified by tandem mass spectrometry as ecto-ADP-ribosyltransferase 5 and nucleobindin, never described before in the accessory sex gland secretions, were also detected. In summary, we identified a diverse range of components in the accessory sex gland fluid of a select group of Holstein bulls with documented fertility. Known characteristics of these proteins suggest that they play important roles in sperm physiology after ejaculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arlindo A Moura
- J.O. Almquist Research Center, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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20
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Lessig J, Glander HJ, Schiller J, Petković M, Paasch U, Arnhold J. Destabilization of the acrosome results in release of phospholipase A2 from human spermatozoa and subsequent formation of lysophospholipids. Andrologia 2006; 38:69-75. [PMID: 16529578 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0272.2006.00713.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipase A(2) controls the phospholipid composition in spermatozoal membranes and is released from the acrosome of human spermatozoa. The extracellular phospholipase A(2) activity of human spermatozoa was determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry after destabilization of acrosome by the calcium-ionophore calcimycin. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry allowed the monitoring of changes in both substrate and products of spermatozoal phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) without the use of labelled phospholipids. The spermatozoal PLA(2) was characterized as a secretory one (sPLA(2)). Secretory PLA(2) exhibited a high substrate specificity for 1-palmitoyl-2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PDPC), the most abundant spermatozoal phospholipid. A time- and cell number-dependent formation of the lysophospholipid PDPC was observed following incubation of extracellular medium of calcimycin-treated spermatozoa (CTS) with PDPC. Antibodies against sPLA(2), specific inhibitors of sPLA(2) and Ca(2+)-chelators could inhibit its generation. An antibody against lysophospholipase enhanced the lysoproduct concentration in the extracellular medium of CTS containing sPLA(2) because further metabolization of these products was blocked. The results demonstrated that destabilization of the acrosome is able to induce a release of secretory phospholipase A(2) from human spermatozoa with subsequent generation of lysophosphocholine in the surrounding of spermatozoa.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lessig
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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21
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Sa SJ, Rhee HH, Cheong HT, Yang BK, Park CK. Effects of plasmin on sperm-oocyte interactions during in vitro fertilization in the pig. Anim Reprod Sci 2006; 95:273-82. [PMID: 16600531 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2006.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2005] [Accepted: 01/23/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to examine the effect of plasmin on sperm viability and sperm-oocyte interaction during in vitro fertilization in the pig. Porcine sperm, which were washed in Dulbecco's PBS were re-suspended and incubated in fertilization medium (mTBM; modified Tris-buffered medium) containing 0, 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 or 100.0ng/mL of plasmin. Sperm viability was not affected by plasmin treatment. Addition of plasmin in doses ranging from 0.1 to 100.0ng/mL for 2, 4 or 6h to washed boar sperm resulted in enhancement of acrosome reaction (AR) compared with untreated cells. The concentration of 0.1ng/mL plasmin (95+/-18 sperm/oocyte) had no effect on sperm binding, whereas 1.0ng/mL (123+/-21 sperm/oocyte), 10.0ng/mL (124+/-16 sperm/oocyte) and 100.0ng/mL (124+/-15 sperm/oocyte) of plasmin increased sperm binding compared with the control (83+/-15 sperm/oocyte). The zona pellucida solubility (zona dissolution time) was less in medium with 1.0ng/mL (123+/-24s), 10.0ng/mL (99+/-15s) or 100.0ng/mL (95+/-19s) plasmin compared with control (176+/-27s). When pig oocytes and sperm were co-incubated in various concentrations of plasmin for 6h, the penetration rate was greater in medium with 1.0ng/mL plasmin (77.5+/-3.1%) compared with the control. However, there were no differences in the polyspermic rates and mean number of sperm (MNS)/oocyte between the groups treated with plasmin and control. These results suggest that plasmin might play a role in events related to fertilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Sa
- Division of Animal Resource Science, College of Animal Resource Science, Kangwon University, Chunchon 200-701, South Korea
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22
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Chen WY, Ni Y, Pan YM, Shi QX, Yuan YY, Chen AJ, Mao LZ, Yu SQ, Roldan ERS. GABA, progesterone and zona pellucida activation of PLA2 and regulation by MEK-ERK1/2 during acrosomal exocytosis in guinea pig spermatozoa. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:4692-700. [PMID: 16098515 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.06.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2005] [Revised: 06/22/2005] [Accepted: 06/28/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether GABA activates phospholipase A2 (PLA2) during acrosomal exocytosis, and if the MEK-ERK1/2 pathway modulates PLA2 activation initiated by GABA, progesterone or zona pellucida (ZP). In guinea pig spermatozoa prelabelled with [14C]arachidonic acid or [14C]choline chloride, GABA stimulated a decrease in phosphatidylcholine (PC), and release of arachidonic acid and lysoPC, during exocytosis. These lipid changes are indicative of PLA2 activation and appear essential for exocytosis since inclusion of aristolochic acid (a PLA2 inhibitor) abrogated them, along with exocytosis. GABA activation of PLA2 seems to be mediated, at least in part, by diacylglycerol (DAG) and protein kinase C since inclusion of the DAG kinase inhibitor R59022 enhanced PLA2 activity and exocytosis stimulated by GABA, whereas exposure to staurosporine decreased both. GABA-, progesterone- and ZP-induced release of arachidonic acid and exocytosis were prevented by U0126 and PD98059 (MEK inhibitors). Taken together, our results suggest that PLA2 plays a fundamental role in agonist-stimulated exocytosis and that MEK-ERK1/2 are involved in PLA2 regulation during this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Ying Chen
- Zhejiang Academy of Medical Science, 310013 Hangzhou, China
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23
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Furimsky A, Vuong N, Xu H, Kumarathasan P, Xu M, Weerachatyanukul W, Bou Khalil M, Kates M, Tanphaichitr N. Percoll Gradient-Centrifuged Capacitated Mouse Sperm Have Increased Fertilizing Ability and Higher Contents of Sulfogalactosylglycerolipid and Docosahexaenoic Acid-Containing Phosphatidylcholine Compared to Washed Capacitated Mouse Sperm1. Biol Reprod 2005; 72:574-83. [PMID: 15525814 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.104.036095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Although Percoll gradient centrifugation has been used routinely to prepare motile human sperm, its use in preparing motile mouse sperm has been limited. Here, we showed that Percoll gradient-centrifuged (PGC) capacitated mouse sperm had markedly higher fertilizing ability (sperm-zona pellucida [ZP] binding and in vitro fertilization) than washed capacitated mouse sperm. We also showed that the lipid profiles of PGC capacitated sperm and washed capacitated sperm differed significantly. The PGC sperm had much lower contents of cholesterol and phospholipids. This resulted in relative enrichment of male germ cell-specific sulfogalactosylglycerolipid (SGG), a ZP-binding ligand, in PGC capacitated sperm, and this would explain, in part, their increased ZP-binding ability compared with that of washed capacitated sperm. Analyses of phospholipid fatty acyl chains revealed that PGC capacitated sperm were enriched in phosphatidylcholine (PC) molecular species containing highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs), with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22: 6n-3) being the predominant HUFA (42% of total hydrocarbon chains of PC). In contrast, the level of PC-HUFAs comprising arachidonic acid (20:4n-6), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-6), and DHA in washed capacitated sperm was only 27%. Having the highest unsaturation degree among all HUFAs in PC, DHA would enhance membrane fluidity to the uppermost. Therefore, membranes of PGC capacitated sperm would undergo fertilization-related fusion events at higher rates than washed capacitated sperm. These results suggested that PGC mouse sperm should be used in fertilization experiments and that SGG and DHA should be considered to be important biomarkers for sperm fertilizing ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Furimsky
- Hormones/Growth/Development Research Group, Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario K1Y 4E9, Canada
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24
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Shi QX, Chen WY, Yuan YY, Mao LZ, Yu SQ, Chen AJ, Ni Y, Roldan ERS. Progesterone primes zona pellucida-induced activation of phospholipase A2 during acrosomal exocytosis in guinea pig spermatozoa. J Cell Physiol 2005; 205:344-54. [PMID: 15965949 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.20426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We investigated, using guinea-pig spermatozoa as a model, whether phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is involved in progesterone or zona pellucida (ZP)-stimulated acrosomal exocytosis, if progesterone enhances ZP-induced activation of PLA2, and mechanisms underlying PLA2 regulation. Spermatozoa were capacitated and labeled in low Ca2+ medium with [14C]choline chloride or [14C]arachidonic acid, washed, and then exposed to millimolar Ca2+ and progesterone and/or ZP. Each agonist stimulated decrease of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and release of arachidonic acid and lysoPC, indicative of PLA2 activation. Aristolochic acid (a PLA2 inhibitor) abrogated lipid changes and exocytosis, indicating that these lipid changes are essential for exocytosis. Exposure of spermatozoa to submaximal concentrations of both progesterone and ZP resulted in a synergistic increase of arachidonic acid and lysoPC releases, and exocytosis, suggesting that, under natural conditions, both agonists interact to bring about acrosomal exocytosis. Progesterone-induced PLA2 activation appears to be mediated by a GABA(A)-like receptor, because bicuculline (a GABA(A) receptor antagonist) blocked arachidonic acid release and exocytosis. In agreement with this, GABA mimicked progesterone actions. ZP-induced activation of PLA2 seemed to be transduced via G(i) proteins because pertussis toxin blocked arachidonic acid release and acrosomal exocytosis. PLA2 may be regulated by PKC because progesterone- or ZP-induced release of arachidonic acid was blocked by the PKC inhibitors staurosporine or chelerythrine chloride. PLA2 could also be regulated by the cAMP-PKA pathway; inclusion of the PKA inhibitor 14-22 amide or H-89 led to a reduction in arachidonic acid release or exocytosis after progesterone or ZP. Taken together, these results suggest that PLA2 plays an essential role in progesterone or ZP-stimulated exocytosis with progesterone priming ZP action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Xian Shi
- Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
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25
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Bao S, Miller DJ, Ma Z, Wohltmann M, Eng G, Ramanadham S, Moley K, Turk J. Male mice that do not express group VIA phospholipase A2 produce spermatozoa with impaired motility and have greatly reduced fertility. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:38194-200. [PMID: 15252026 PMCID: PMC3733543 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m406489200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The Group VIA Phospholipase A(2) (iPLA(2)beta) is the first recognized cytosolic Ca(2+)-independent PLA(2) and has been proposed to participate in arachidonic acid (20:4) incorporation into glycerophosphocholine lipids, cell proliferation, exocytosis, apoptosis, and other processes. To study iPLA(2)beta functions, we disrupted its gene by homologous recombination to generate mice that do not express iPLA(2)beta. Heterozygous iPLA(2)beta(+/-) breeding pairs yield a Mendelian 1:2:1 ratio of iPLA(2)beta(+/+), iPLA(2)beta(+/-), and iPLA(2)beta(-/-) pups and a 1:1 male:female gender distribution of iPLA(2)beta(-/-) pups. Several tissues of wild-type mice express iPLA(2)beta mRNA, immunoreactive protein, and activity, and testes express the highest levels. Testes or other tissues of iPLA(2)beta(-/-) mice express no iPLA(2)beta mRNA or protein, but iPLA(2)beta(-/-) testes are not deficient in 20:4-containing glycerophosphocholine lipids, indicating that iPLA(2)beta does not play an obligatory role in formation of such lipids in that tissue. Spermatozoa from iPLA(2)beta(-/-) mice have reduced motility and impaired ability to fertilize mouse oocytes in vitro and in vivo, and inhibiting iPLA(2)beta with a bromoenol lactone suicide substrate reduces motility of wild-type spermatozoa in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Mating iPLA(2)beta(-/-) male mice with iPLA(2)beta(+/+), iPLA(2)beta(+/-), or iPLA(2)beta(-/-) female mice yields only about 7% of the number of pups produced by mating pairs with an iPLA(2)beta(+/+) or iPLA(2)beta(+/-) male, but iPLA(2)beta(-/-) female mice have nearly normal fertility. These findings indicate that iPLA(2)beta plays an important functional role in spermatozoa, suggest a target for developing male contraceptive drugs, and complement reports that disruption of the Group IVA PLA(2) (cPLA(2)alpha) gene impairs female reproductive ability.
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MESH Headings
- Alleles
- Animals
- Apoptosis
- Blotting, Northern
- Blotting, Southern
- Blotting, Western
- Calcium/metabolism
- Cytosol/enzymology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Female
- Fertilization
- Fertilization in Vitro
- Genotype
- Group II Phospholipases A2
- Heterozygote
- Infertility, Male/genetics
- Male
- Mass Spectrometry
- Mice
- Models, Genetic
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Oocytes/metabolism
- Phospholipases A/biosynthesis
- Phospholipases A/genetics
- Phospholipases A2
- Pyrones/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombination, Genetic
- Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
- Sperm Motility/genetics
- Spermatozoa/metabolism
- Testis/metabolism
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunzhong Bao
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - David J. Miller
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Zhongmin Ma
- Division of Experimental Diabetes, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York 10029
| | - Mary Wohltmann
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Grace Eng
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Sasanka Ramanadham
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Kelle Moley
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - John Turk
- Mass Spectrometry Resource, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
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