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Haque A, Trager NNM, Butler JT, Das A, Zaman V, Banik NL. A novel combination approach to effectively reduce inflammation and neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis models. Neurochem Int 2024; 175:105697. [PMID: 38364938 PMCID: PMC10994736 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2024.105697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by immune-mediated attacks on the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in demyelination and recurring T-cell responses. Unfortunately, there is no cure for it. Current therapies that target immunomodulation and/or immunosuppression show only modest beneficial effects, have many side effects, and do not block neurodegeneration or progression of the disease. Since neurodegeneration and in particular axonal degeneration is implicated in disability in progressive MS, development of novel therapeutic strategies to attenuate the neurodegenerative processes is imperative. This study aims to develop new safe and efficacious treatments that address both the inflammatory and neurodegenerative aspects of MS using its animal model, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). In EAE, the cysteine protease calpain is upregulated in CNS tissue, and its activity correlates with neurodegeneration. Our immunologic studies on MS have indicated that increased calpain activity promotes pro-inflammatory T helper (Th)1 cells and the severity of the disease in EAE, suggesting that calpain inhibition could be a novel target to combat neurodegeneration in MS/EAE. While calpain inhibition by SNJ1945 reduced disease severity, treatment of EAE animals with a novel protease-resistant altered small peptide ligand (3aza-APL) that mimic myelin basic protein (MBP), also decreased the incidence of EAE, disease severity, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and protected myelin. A reduction in inflammatory T-cells with an increase in Tregs and myeloid suppressor cells is also found in EAE mice treated with SNJ1945 and 3aza-APL. Thus, a novel combination strategy was tested in chronic EAE mouse model in B10 mice which showed multiple pathological mechanisms could be addressed by simultaneous treatment with calpain inhibitor SNJ1945 and protease-resistant 3aza-APL to achieve a stronger therapeutic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azizul Haque
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA.
| | - Nicole N M Trager
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Jonathan T Butler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Arabinda Das
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Vandana Zaman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA
| | - Naren L Banik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA; Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA.
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Bruzaite A, Gedvilaite G, Balnyte R, Kriauciuniene L, Liutkeviciene R. Influence of STAT4 Genetic Variants and Serum Levels on Multiple Sclerosis Occurrence in the Lithuanian Population. J Clin Med 2024; 13:2385. [PMID: 38673659 PMCID: PMC11050845 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13082385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease involving demyelination, inflammation, gliosis, and the loss of neurons. MS is a growing global health problem most likely caused by genetic, immunological, and environmental factors. However, the exact etiology of the disease is still unknown. Since MS is related to a dysregulation of the immune system, it could be linked to signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4). To fully comprehend the significance of the STAT4 gene and STAT4 serum levels in MS, further research is required. Methods: A total of 200 MS patients and 200 healthy controls participated in the study. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted using silica-based membrane technology. Polymerase chain reaction was used in real time for genotyping. Using the ELISA technique, serum levels were measured. Results:STAT4 rs7601754 AA genotype and the A allele were statistically significantly less frequent in MS patients (p = 0.003). Also, rs7601754 was associated with 1.9-fold increased odds of MS occurrence (p = 0.004). The rs7601754 AG genotype was more common in males with MS (p = 0.011) and was associated with 2.5-fold increased odds of MS occurrence in males (p = 0.012). STAT4 serum levels were statistically significantly lower in MS patients compared to the control group (p = 0.007). Conclusions:STAT4 rs7601754 increases the odds of MS occurrence. STAT4 serum levels were statistically significantly lower in MS patients compared to the control group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akvile Bruzaite
- Ophthalmology Laboratory, Neuroscience Institute, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Street 2, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (G.G.); (L.K.); (R.L.)
| | - Greta Gedvilaite
- Ophthalmology Laboratory, Neuroscience Institute, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Street 2, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (G.G.); (L.K.); (R.L.)
| | - Renata Balnyte
- Department of Neurology, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Street 2, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Loresa Kriauciuniene
- Ophthalmology Laboratory, Neuroscience Institute, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Street 2, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (G.G.); (L.K.); (R.L.)
| | - Rasa Liutkeviciene
- Ophthalmology Laboratory, Neuroscience Institute, Medical Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Street 2, LT-50161 Kaunas, Lithuania; (G.G.); (L.K.); (R.L.)
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3
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Zhu Y, Sousa AMM, Gao T, Skarica M, Li M, Santpere G, Esteller-Cucala P, Juan D, Ferrández-Peral L, Gulden FO, Yang M, Miller DJ, Marques-Bonet T, Imamura Kawasawa Y, Zhao H, Sestan N. Spatiotemporal transcriptomic divergence across human and macaque brain development. Science 2018; 362:362/6420/eaat8077. [PMID: 30545855 DOI: 10.1126/science.aat8077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human nervous system development is an intricate and protracted process that requires precise spatiotemporal transcriptional regulation. We generated tissue-level and single-cell transcriptomic data from up to 16 brain regions covering prenatal and postnatal rhesus macaque development. Integrative analysis with complementary human data revealed that global intraspecies (ontogenetic) and interspecies (phylogenetic) regional transcriptomic differences exhibit concerted cup-shaped patterns, with a late fetal-to-infancy (perinatal) convergence. Prenatal neocortical transcriptomic patterns revealed transient topographic gradients, whereas postnatal patterns largely reflected functional hierarchy. Genes exhibiting heterotopic and heterochronic divergence included those transiently enriched in the prenatal prefrontal cortex or linked to autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. Our findings shed light on transcriptomic programs underlying the evolution of human brain development and the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - André M M Sousa
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Tianliuyun Gao
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mario Skarica
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mingfeng Li
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Gabriel Santpere
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - David Juan
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (UPF-CSIC), PRBB, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Forrest O Gulden
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mo Yang
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Daniel J Miller
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Tomas Marques-Bonet
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology (UPF-CSIC), PRBB, Barcelona, Spain.,Catalan Institution of Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain.,CNAG-CRG, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut Català de Paleontologia Miquel Crusafont, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Yuka Imamura Kawasawa
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Personalized Medicine, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Hongyu Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Departments of Genetics, Psychiatry, and Comparative Medicine, Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, and Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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Sun Y, Lehmbecker A, Kalkuhl A, Deschl U, Sun W, Rohn K, Tzvetanova ID, Nave KA, Baumgärtner W, Ulrich R. STAT3 represents a molecular switch possibly inducing astroglial instead of oligodendroglial differentiation of oligodendroglial progenitor cells in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2015; 41:347-70. [DOI: 10.1111/nan.12133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yanyong Sun
- Department of Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
- Centre for Systems Neuroscience Hannover; Hannover Germany
| | - Annika Lehmbecker
- Department of Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
- Centre for Systems Neuroscience Hannover; Hannover Germany
| | - Arno Kalkuhl
- Department of Non-Clinical Drug Safety; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma; Biberach (Riß) Germany
| | - Ulrich Deschl
- Department of Non-Clinical Drug Safety; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma; Biberach (Riß) Germany
| | - Wenhui Sun
- Department of Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
- Centre for Systems Neuroscience Hannover; Hannover Germany
| | - Karl Rohn
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
| | - Iva D. Tzvetanova
- Department of Neurogenetics; Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine; Göttingen Germany
| | - Klaus-Armin Nave
- Department of Neurogenetics; Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine; Göttingen Germany
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
- Centre for Systems Neuroscience Hannover; Hannover Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Pathology; University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Hannover Germany
- Centre for Systems Neuroscience Hannover; Hannover Germany
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Abnormal immune system development and function in schizophrenia helps reconcile diverse findings and suggests new treatment and prevention strategies. Brain Res 2015; 1617:93-112. [PMID: 25736181 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Extensive research implicates disturbed immune function and development in the etiology and pathology of schizophrenia. In addition to reviewing evidence for immunological factors in schizophrenia, this paper discusses how an emerging model of atypical immune function and development helps explain a wide variety of well-established - but puzzling - findings about schizophrenia. A number of theorists have presented hypotheses that early immune system programming, disrupted by pre- and perinatal adversity, often combines with abnormal brain development to produce schizophrenia. The present paper focuses on the hypothesis that disruption of early immune system development produces a latent immune vulnerability that manifests more fully after puberty, when changes in immune function and the thymus leave individuals more susceptible to infections and immune dysfunctions that contribute to schizophrenia. Complementing neurodevelopmental models, this hypothesis integrates findings on many contributing factors to schizophrenia, including prenatal adversity, genes, climate, migration, infections, and stress, among others. It helps explain, for example, why (a) schizophrenia onset is typically delayed until years after prenatal adversity, (b) individual risk factors alone often do not lead to schizophrenia, and (c) schizophrenia prevalence rates actually tend to be higher in economically advantaged countries. Here we discuss how the hypothesis explains 10 key findings, and suggests new, potentially highly cost-effective, strategies for treatment and prevention of schizophrenia. Moreover, while most human research linking immune factors to schizophrenia has been correlational, these strategies provide ethical ways to experimentally test in humans theories about immune function and schizophrenia. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Neuroimmunology in Health And Disease.
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Pachón H, Simondon KB, Fall ST, Menon P, Ruel MT, Hotz C, Creed-Kanashiro H, Arce B, Domínguez MRL, Frongillo EA, Brown DL. Constraints on the delivery of animal-source foods to infants and young children: case studies from five countries. Food Nutr Bull 2014; 28:215-29. [PMID: 24683681 DOI: 10.1177/156482650702800211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED BACKGROUND. Optimal feeding of infants and young children in developing countries includes daily feeding of animal-source foods. OBJECTIVE. To evaluate constraints on the availability of animal-source foods at the community level, access to animal-source foods at the household level, and intake of animal-source foods at the individual level among children under 3 years of age in case studies in five developing countries: Mexico, Peru, Haiti, Senegal, and Ethiopia. METHODS Data were obtained from published and unpublished research and from program experiences of health and agriculture specialists. RESULTS In Ethiopia, 27% to 51% of case-study children had consumed an animal-source food on the previous day; from 56% to 87% of children in the other case-study sites had consumed an animal-source food on the previous day. Data on intake of animal-source foods in grams were only available for the Latin American case-study sites, where daily milk intake was high in Mexico and Peru (195 and 180 g/day, respectively) and the intakes of meat, fish, and poultry (MFP) (29.0 and 13.6 g/day) and of egg (18.4 and 4.9 g/day) were low. The conceptual model guiding this work identified more constraining factors at the community and household levels than at the individual level. The most common constraints on feeding animal-source foods to young children were poverty, animal health, and land degradation at the community level; cost of animal-source foods and limited livestock holdings at the household level; and caregivers' perceptions of giving animal-source foods to children at the individual level. CONCLUSIONS For program planning, it is useful to simultaneously consider factors that affect community availability of household access to, and children's intake of animal-source foods. Efforts to overcome individual-level constraints on intake of animal-source foods should be coupled with activities to address community and household constraints.
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Riveros C, Mellor D, Gandhi KS, McKay FC, Cox MB, Berretta R, Vaezpour SY, Inostroza-Ponta M, Broadley SA, Heard RN, Vucic S, Stewart GJ, Williams DW, Scott RJ, Lechner-Scott J, Booth DR, Moscato P. A transcription factor map as revealed by a genome-wide gene expression analysis of whole-blood mRNA transcriptome in multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14176. [PMID: 21152067 PMCID: PMC2995726 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Several lines of evidence suggest that transcription factors are involved in the pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) but complete mapping of the whole network has been elusive. One of the reasons is that there are several clinical subtypes of MS and transcription factors that may be involved in one subtype may not be in others. We investigate the possibility that this network could be mapped using microarray technologies and contemporary bioinformatics methods on a dataset derived from whole blood in 99 untreated MS patients (36 Relapse Remitting MS, 43 Primary Progressive MS, and 20 Secondary Progressive MS) and 45 age-matched healthy controls. Methodology/Principal Findings We have used two different analytical methodologies: a non-standard differential expression analysis and a differential co-expression analysis, which have converged on a significant number of regulatory motifs that are statistically overrepresented in genes that are either differentially expressed (or differentially co-expressed) in cases and controls (e.g., V$KROX_Q6, p-value <3.31E-6; V$CREBP1_Q2, p-value <9.93E-6, V$YY1_02, p-value <1.65E-5). Conclusions/Significance Our analysis uncovered a network of transcription factors that potentially dysregulate several genes in MS or one or more of its disease subtypes. The most significant transcription factor motifs were for the Early Growth Response EGR/KROX family, ATF2, YY1 (Yin and Yang 1), E2F-1/DP-1 and E2F-4/DP-2 heterodimers, SOX5, and CREB and ATF families. These transcription factors are involved in early T-lymphocyte specification and commitment as well as in oligodendrocyte dedifferentiation and development, both pathways that have significant biological plausibility in MS causation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Riveros
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Drew Mellor
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Kaushal S. Gandhi
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Fiona C. McKay
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Mathew B. Cox
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Regina Berretta
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - S. Yahya Vaezpour
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Department of Computer Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mario Inostroza-Ponta
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Departamento de Ingeniería Informática, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Simon A. Broadley
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
- Department of Neurology, Gold Coast Hospital, Southport, Australia
| | - Robert N. Heard
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Stephen Vucic
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Graeme J. Stewart
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | | | - Rodney J. Scott
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Jeanette Lechner-Scott
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - David R. Booth
- Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Pablo Moscato
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Biomarker Discovery & Information-Based Medicine, University of Newcastle, and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Bioinformatics, St Lucia, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Kinney DK, Hintz K, Shearer EM, Barch DH, Riffin C, Whitley K, Butler R. A unifying hypothesis of schizophrenia: abnormal immune system development may help explain roles of prenatal hazards, post-pubertal onset, stress, genes, climate, infections, and brain dysfunction. Med Hypotheses 2010; 74:555-63. [PMID: 19836903 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2009] [Accepted: 09/20/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We propose a unifying hypothesis of schizophrenia to help reconcile findings from many different disciplines. This hypothesis proposes that schizophrenia often involves pre- or perinatal exposure to adverse factors that produce a latent immune vulnerability. When this vulnerability is manifested, beginning around puberty with changes in immune function and involution of the thymus, individuals become more susceptible to infections and immune dysfunctions that contribute to schizophrenia. Our hypothesis suggests theoretical bridges between different lines of evidence on schizophrenia and offers explanations for many puzzling findings about schizophrenia. For example, the hypothesis helps account for why schizophrenia patients tend to have had increased exposure to neurotropic infections, but most individuals with such exposure do not develop schizophrenia, and why prenatal hardships increase risk for schizophrenia, but the onset of symptoms typically does not occur until after puberty. The hypothesis also explains another paradox: lower socioeconomic status and poor prenatal care increase risk for schizophrenia at the same geographic site, but international comparisons indicate that countries with higher per capita incomes and better prenatal care actually tend to have higher schizophrenia prevalences. As the hypothesis predicts, (1) prenatal adversity, which increases risk for schizophrenia, also impairs post-pubertal immune competence, (2) schizophrenia patients experience elevated morbidity from infectious and auto-immune diseases, (3) genetic and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia increase vulnerability to these diseases, (4) factors that exacerbate schizophrenic symptoms also tend to impair immune function, (5) many anti-psychotic medications combat infection, (6) effects of early infections may not appear until after puberty, when they can produce neurologic and psychiatric symptoms, and (7) immune dysfunctions, such as imbalances of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, may contribute to the onset of psychotic symptoms and the progressive loss of brain tissue in schizophrenia. The disruptive effects of prenatal adversity on the development of the immune system may often combine with adverse effects on prenatal brain development to produce schizophrenia. This paper focuses on the adverse immune system effects, because effects on the brain have been extensively discussed in neurodevelopmental theories of schizophrenia. We propose new tests of scientific predictions. We also point out potential clinical implications of the hypothesis; for example, individuals with schizophrenia may often have underlying infections or immune dysfunctions, such as imbalances in inflammatory cytokines, that contribute to the illness. This possibility could be tested experimentally--e.g., by clinical trials in which patients' exposure to infection is reduced or immune function is normalized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis K Kinney
- Genetics Laboratory, Mailman Research Center, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, United States.
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9
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Steelman AJ, Dean DD, Young CR, Smith R, Prentice TW, Meagher MW, Welsh CJR. Restraint stress modulates virus specific adaptive immunity during acute Theiler's virus infection. Brain Behav Immun 2009; 23:830-43. [PMID: 19348911 PMCID: PMC2710426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2008] [Revised: 03/21/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a devastating CNS disease of unknown origin. Multiple factors including genetic background, infection, and psychological stress affect the onset or progression of MS. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection is an animal model of MS in which aberrant immunity leads to viral persistence and subsequently results in demyelination that resembles MS. Here, we examined how stress during acute TMEV infection altered virus-specific cell mediated responses. Using immunodominant viral peptides specific for either CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells, we found that stress reduced IFN-gamma producing virus-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the spleen and CD8(+) T cells CNS. Cytokine production by cells isolated from the CNS or spleens following stimulation with virus or viral peptides, indicated that stress decreased both type 1 and type 2 responses. Glucocorticoids were implicated in the decreased T cell function as the effects of stress were partially reversed by concurrent RU486 administration but mimicked by dexamethasone. As T cells mediate viral clearance in this model, our data support the hypothesis that stress-induced immunosuppression may provide a mechanism for enhanced viral persistence within the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Steelman
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Dana D. Dean
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Colin R. Young
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Roger Smith
- Dept of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Thomas W. Prentice
- Dept of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Mary W. Meagher
- Dept of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - C. Jane R. Welsh
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A, Dept of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
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Zeis T, Probst A, Steck AJ, Stadelmann C, Brück W, Schaeren-Wiemers N. Molecular changes in white matter adjacent to an active demyelinating lesion in early multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol 2008; 19:459-66. [PMID: 19016740 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2008.00231.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A stereotactic biopsy of a 17-year-old woman revealed an active inflammatory demyelinating lesion compatible with pattern III multiple sclerosis (MS) according to Lucchinetti et al. The biopsy included a white matter region distant from the active inflammatory demyelinating lesion with abnormal MRI signal, lacking histopathological signs of demyelination and/or oligodendrocyte apoptosis. Expression analysis of this area revealed a strong up-regulation of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). Furthermore, detection of nitrotyrosine provided evidence for reactive nitrogen species (RNS)-mediated damage to oligodendrocytes. Concomitantly, genes involved in neuroprotection against oxidative stress such as heme oxygenase 1 were up-regulated. Even though a single case report, this study shows earliest molecular changes in white matter surrounding an actively demyelinating lesion during the first manifestation of MS, pointing toward a more widespread pathological process. Therapeutic targeting of the identified mechanisms of tissue injury might be crucial to prevent further lesion formation or secondary tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Zeis
- Neurobiology, Department of Biomedicine and Neurology, University Hospital Basel, Pharmacenter, Basel, Switzerland
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Abstract
The role of immune-mediated axonal injury in the induction of nonremitting functional deficits associated with multiple sclerosis is an area of active research that promises to substantially alter our understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease and modify or change our therapeutic focus. This review summarizes the current state of research regarding changes in axonal function during demyelination, provides evidence of axonal dysmorphia and degeneration associated with demyelination, and identifies the cellular and molecular effectors of immune-mediated axonal injury. Finally, a unifying hypothesis that links neuronal stress associated with demyelination-induced axonal dysfunction to immune recognition and immunopathology is provided in an effort to shape future experimentation.
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Rodriguez M. Effectors of demyelination and remyelination in the CNS: implications for multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol 2007; 17:219-29. [PMID: 17388953 PMCID: PMC8095636 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00065.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the research on multiple sclerosis (MS) has focused on the early events that trigger demyelination and subsequent remyelination. Less attention has been given to the factors that directly mediate the demyelination that is the hallmark of the disease. Effector cells or molecules are those factors directly responsible for mediating the damage in the disease. Similarly, there are effector molecules that are critical for remyelination in the central nervous system (CNS). By understanding those effector molecules in demyelination and remyelination that directly influence the pathologic process, we should be able to generate specific therapies with the greatest potential for benefiting MS patients. This review focuses on effector cells and molecules that are critical for demyelination and remyelination in MS but also in experimental models of the disease including experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), virus-induced models of demyelination (Theiler's virus, murine hepatitis virus), and toxic models of demyelination (lysolecithin, ethidium bromide, and cuprizone). These are models in which the effector molecules for demyelination and remyelination have been most precisely evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moses Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology and Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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