Localization of vascular response to VEGF is not dependent on heparin binding

Angiogenesis and Functional Vessel Formation Induced by Interstitial Flow and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Using a Microfluidic Chip

Angiogenesis occurs during both physiological and pathological processes. In this study, a microfluidic chip for the development of angiogenesis was utilized to assess angiogenic sprouting and functional vessel formation. We also found that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was a determinant of the initiation of vascular sprouts, while the direction of these sprouts was greatly influenced by interstitial flow. Isoforms of VEGF such as VEGF₁₂₁, VEGF₁₆₅, and VEGF₁₈₉ displayed different angiogenic properties on the chip as assessed by sprout length and number, vessel perfusion, and connectivity. VEGF₁₆₅ had the highest capacity to induce vascular sprouting among the three isoforms assessed and furthermore, also induced functional vessel formation. This chip could be used to analyze the effect of different angiogenic factors and drugs, as well as to explore the mechanism of angiogenesis induced by such factors.

Investigation of the mechanisms of VEGF-mediated compensatory lung growth: the role of the VEGF heparin-binding domain

Morbidity and mortality for neonates with congenital diaphragmatic hernia-associated pulmonary hypoplasia remains high. These patients may be deficient in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Our lab previously established that exogenous VEGF164 accelerates compensatory lung growth (CLG) after left pneumonectomy in a murine model. We aimed to further investigate VEGF-mediated CLG by examining the role of the heparin-binding domain (HBD). Eight-week-old, male, C57BL/6J mice underwent left pneumonectomy, followed by post-operative and daily intraperitoneal injections of equimolar VEGF164 or VEGF120, which lacks the HBD. Isovolumetric saline was used as a control. VEGF164 significantly increased lung volume, total lung capacity, and alveolarization, while VEGF120 did not. Treadmill exercise tolerance testing (TETT) demonstrated improved functional outcomes post-pneumonectomy with VEGF164 treatment. In lung protein analysis, VEGF treatment modulated downstream angiogenic signaling. Activation of epithelial growth factor receptor and pulmonary cell proliferation was also upregulated. Human microvascular lung endothelial cells (HMVEC-L) treated with VEGF demonstrated decreased potency of VEGFR2 activation with VEGF121 treatment compared to VEGF165 treatment. Taken together, these data indicate that the VEGF HBD contributes to angiogenic and proliferative signaling, is required for accelerated compensatory lung growth, and improves functional outcomes in a murine CLG model.

Extracellular regulation of VEGF: isoforms, proteolysis, and vascular patterning

The regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF) is critical to neovascularization in numerous tissues under physiological and pathological conditions. VEGF has multiple isoforms, created by alternative splicing or proteolytic cleavage, and characterized by different receptor-binding and matrix-binding properties. These isoforms are known to give rise to a spectrum of angiogenesis patterns marked by differences in branching, which has functional implications for tissues. In this review, we detail the extensive extracellular regulation of VEGF and the ability of VEGF to dictate the vascular phenotype. We explore the role of VEGF-releasing proteases and soluble carrier molecules on VEGF activity. While proteases such as MMP9 can 'release' matrix-bound VEGF and promote angiogenesis, for example as a key step in carcinogenesis, proteases can also suppress VEGF's angiogenic effects. We explore what dictates pro- or anti-angiogenic behavior. We also seek to understand the phenomenon of VEGF gradient formation. Strong VEGF gradients are thought to be due to decreased rates of diffusion from reversible matrix binding, however theoretical studies show that this scenario cannot give rise to lasting VEGF gradients in vivo. We propose that gradients are formed through degradation of sequestered VEGF. Finally, we review how different aspects of the VEGF signal, such as its concentration, gradient, matrix-binding, and NRP1-binding can differentially affect angiogenesis. We explore how this allows VEGF to regulate the formation of vascular networks across a spectrum of high to low branching densities, and from normal to pathological angiogenesis. A better understanding of the control of angiogenesis is necessary to improve upon limitations of current angiogenic therapies.

Controlled angiogenesis in the heart by cell-based expression of specific vascular endothelial growth factor levels

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can induce normal angiogenesis or the growth of angioma-like vascular tumors depending on the amount secreted by each producing cell because it remains localized in the microenvironment. In order to control the distribution of VEGF expression levels in vivo, we recently developed a high-throughput fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-based technique to rapidly purify transduced progenitors that homogeneously express a specific VEGF dose from a heterogeneous primary population. Here we tested the hypothesis that cell-based delivery of a controlled VEGF level could induce normal angiogenesis in the heart, while preventing the development of angiomas. Freshly isolated human adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ASC) were transduced with retroviral vectors expressing either rat VEGF linked to a FACS-quantifiable cell-surface marker (a truncated form of CD8) or CD8 alone as control (CTR). VEGF-expressing cells were FACS-purified to generate populations producing either a specific VEGF level (SPEC) or uncontrolled heterogeneous levels (ALL). Fifteen nude rats underwent intramyocardial injection of 10(7) cells. Histology was performed after 4 weeks. Both the SPEC and ALL cells produced a similar total amount of VEGF, and both cell types induced a 50%-60% increase in both total and perfused vessel density compared to CTR cells, despite very limited stable engraftment. However, homogeneous VEGF expression by SPEC cells induced only normal and stable angiogenesis. Conversely, heterogeneous expression of a similar total amount by the ALL cells caused the growth of numerous angioma-like structures. These results suggest that controlled VEGF delivery by FACS-purified ASC may be a promising strategy to achieve safe therapeutic angiogenesis in the heart.

Pleiotrophin gene therapy for peripheral ischemia: evaluation of full-length and truncated gene variants

Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a growth factor with both pro-angiogenic and limited pro-tumorigenic activity. We evaluated the potential for PTN to be used for safe angiogenic gene therapy using the full length gene and a truncated gene variant lacking the domain implicated in tumorigenesis. Mouse myoblasts were transduced to express full length or truncated PTN (PTN or T-PTN), along with a LacZ reporter gene, and injected into mouse limb muscle and myocardium. In cultured myoblasts, PTN was expressed and secreted via the Golgi apparatus, but T-PTN was not properly secreted. Nonetheless, no evidence of uncontrolled growth was observed in cells expressing either form of PTN. PTN gene delivery to myocardium, and non-ischemic skeletal muscle, did not result in a detectable change in vascularity or function. In ischemic hindlimb at 14 days post-implantation, intramuscular injection with PTN-expressing myoblasts led to a significant increase in skin perfusion and muscle arteriole density. We conclude that (1) delivery of the full length PTN gene to muscle can be accomplished without tumorigenesis, (2) the truncated PTN gene may be difficult to use in a gene therapy context due to inefficient secretion, (3) PTN gene delivery leads to functional benefit in the mouse acute ischemic hindlimb model.

Overexpression of gankyrin in mouse hepatocytes induces hemangioma by suppressing factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (FIH-1) and activating hypoxia-inducible factor-1

Gankyrin (also called p28 or PSMD10) is an oncoprotein commonly overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinomas. It consists of 7 ankyrin repeats and interacts with multiple proteins including Rb, Cdk4, MDM2 and NF-κB. To assess the oncogenic activity in vivo, we produced transgenic mice that overexpress gankyrin specifically in the hepatocytes. Unexpectedly, 5 of 7 F2 transgenic mice overexpressing hepatitis B virus X protein (HBX) promoter-driven gankyrin, and one of 3 founder mice overexpressing serum amyloid P component (SAP) promoter-driven gankyrin developed hepatic vascular neoplasms (hemangioma/hemangiosarcomas) whereas none of the wild-type mice did. Endothelial overgrowth was more frequent in the livers of diethylnitrosamine-treated transgenic mice than wild-type mice. Mouse hepatoma Hepa1-6 cells overexpressing gankyrin formed tumors with more vascularity than parental Hepa1-6 cells in the transplanted mouse skin. We found that gankyrin binds to and sequester factor inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (FIH-1), which results in decreased interaction between FIH-1 and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and increased activity of HIF-1 to promote VEGF production. The effects of gankyrin were more prominent under 3% O2 than 1% or 20% O2 conditions. Thus, the present study clarified, at least partly, mechanisms of vascular tumorigenesis, and suggests that gankyrin might play a physiological role in hypoxic responses besides its roles as an oncoprotein.

High-throughput flow cytometry purification of transduced progenitors expressing defined levels of vascular endothelial growth factor induces controlled angiogenesis in vivo

Delivery of therapeutic genes by genetically modified progenitors is a powerful tool for regenerative medicine. However, many proteins remain localized within or around the expressing cell, and heterogeneous expression levels can lead to reduced efficacy or increased toxicity. For example, the matrix-binding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) can induce normal, stable, and functional angiogenesis or aberrant angioma growth depending on its level of expression in the microenvironment around each producing cell, and not on its total dose. To overcome this limitation, we developed a flow cytometry-based method to rapidly purify transduced cells expressing desired levels of a therapeutic transgene. Primary mouse myoblasts were transduced with a bicistronic retrovirus expressing VEGF linked to a nonfunctional, truncated form of the syngenic molecule CD8a. By using a clonal population uniformly expressing a known VEGF level as a reference, cells producing similar VEGF amounts were rapidly sorted from the primary population on the basis of their CD8a fluorescence intensity. A single round of sorting with a suitably designed gate yielded a purified population that induced robust, normal, and stable angiogenesis, and completely avoided angioma growth, which was instead always caused by the heterogeneous parent population. This clinically applicable high-throughput technique allowed the delivery of highly controlled VEGF levels in vivo, leading to significantly improved safety without compromising efficacy. Furthermore, when applied to other suitable progenitor populations, this technique could help overcome a significant obstacle in the development of safe and efficacious vascularization strategies in the fields of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

Molecular diversity of VEGF-A as a regulator of its biological activity

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family of proteins regulates blood flow, growth, and function in both normal physiology and disease processes. VEGF-A is alternatively spliced to form multiple isoforms, in two subfamilies, that have specific, novel functions. Alternative splicing of exons 5-7 of the VEGF gene generates forms with differing bioavailability and activities, whereas alternative splice-site selection in exon 8 generates proangiogenic, termed VEGF(xxx), or antiangiogenic proteins, termed VEGF(xxx)b. Despite its name, emerging roles for VEGF isoforms on cell types other than endothelium have now been identified. Although VEGF-A has conventionally been considered to be a family of proangiogenic, propermeability vasodilators, the identification of effects on nonendothelial cells, and the discovery of the antiangiogenic subfamily of splice isoforms, has added further complexity to their regulation of microvascular function. The distally spliced antiangiogenic isoforms are expressed in normal human tissue, but downregulated in angiogenic diseases, such as cancer and proliferative retinopathy, and in developmental pathologies, such as Denys Drash syndrome and preeclampsia. Here, we examine the molecular diversity of VEGF-A as a regulator of its biological activity and compare the role of the pro- and antiangiogenic VEGF-A splice isoforms in both normal and pathophysiological processes.

The 'sweet' and 'bitter' involvement of glycosaminoglycans in lung diseases: pharmacotherapeutic relevance

The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a significant role in the structure and function of the lung. The ECM is a three-dimensional fibre mesh, comprised of various interconnected and intercalated macromolecules, among which are the glycosaminoglycans (GAG). GAG are long, linear and highly charged, heterogeneous polysaccharides that are composed of a variable number of repeating disaccharide units (macromolecular sugars) and most of them, as their name implies, have a sweet taste. In the lung, GAG support the structure of the interstitium, the subepithelial tissue and the bronchial walls, and are secreted in the airway secretions. Besides maintaining lung tissue structure, GAG also play an important role in lung function as they regulate hydration and water homeostasis, modulate the inflammatory response and influence lung tissue repair and remodelling. However, depending on their size and/or degree of sulphation, and their immobilization or solubilization in the ECM, specific GAG in the lung either live up to their sweet taste/name, supporting normal lung physiology, or they are associated to 'bitter' effects, related to lung pathology. The present review discusses the biological role of GAG in the lung as well as the involvement of these molecules in various respiratory diseases. Given the great structural diversity of GAG, understanding the changes in GAG expression that occur in lung diseases may lead to novel targets for pharmacological intervention in order to prevent and/or to treat a range of lung diseases.

Sumoylation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma by apoptotic cells prevents lipopolysaccharide-induced NCoR removal from kappaB binding sites mediating transrepression of proinflammatory cytokines

Efficient clearance of apoptotic cells (AC) by professional phagocytes is crucial for tissue homeostasis and resolution of inflammation. Macrophages respond to AC with an increase in antiinflammatory cytokine production but a diminished release of proinflammatory mediators. Mechanisms to explain attenuated proinflammatory cytokine formation remain elusive. We provide evidence that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) coordinates antiinflammatory responses following its activation by AC. Exposing murine RAW264.7 macrophages to AC before LPS stimulation reduced NF-kappaB transactivation and lowered target gene expression of, that is, TNF-alpha and IL-6 compared with controls. In macrophages overexpressing a dominant negative mutant of PPARgamma, NF-kappaB transactivation in response to LPS was restored, while macrophages from myeloid lineage-specific conditional PPARgamma knockout mice proved that PPARgamma transmitted an antiinflammatory response, which was delivered by AC. Expressing a PPARgamma-Delta aa32-250 deletion mutant, we observed no inhibition of NF-kappaB. Analyzing the PPARgamma domain structures within aa 32-250, we anticipated PPARgamma sumoylation in mediating the antiinflammatory effect in response to AC. Interfering with sumoylation of PPARgamma by mutating the predicted sumoylation site (K77R), or knockdown of the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) E3 ligase PIAS1 (protein inhibitor of activated STAT1), eliminated the ability of AC to suppress NF-kappaB. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated that AC prevented the LPS-induced removal of nuclear receptor corepressor (NCoR) from the kappaB site within the TNF-alpha promoter. We conclude that AC induce PPARgamma sumoylation to attenuate the removal of NCoR, thereby blocking transactivation of NF-kappaB. This contributes to an antiinflammatory phenotype shift in macrophages responding to AC by lowering proinflammatory cytokine production.

Neuropilin-1 in regulation of VEGF-induced activation of p38MAPK and endothelial cell organization

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A regulates vascular development and angiogenesis. VEGF isoforms differ in ability to bind coreceptors heparan sulfate (HS) and neuropilin-1 (NRP1). We used VEGF-A165 (which binds HS and NRP1), VEGF-A121 (binds neither HS nor NRP1), and parapoxvirus VEGF-E-NZ2 (binds NRP1 but not HS) to investigate the role of NRP1 in organization of endothelial cells into vascular structures. All 3 ligands induced similar level of VEGFR-2 tyrosine phosphorylation in the presence of NRP1. In contrast, sprouting angiogenesis in differentiating embryonic stem cells (embryoid bodies), formation of branching pericyte-embedded vessels in subcutaneous matrigel plugs, and sprouting of intersegmental vessels in developing zebrafish were induced by VEGF-A165 and VEGF-E-NZ2 but not by VEGF-A121. Analyses of recombinant factors with NRP1-binding gain- and loss-of-function properties supported the conclusion that NRP1 is critical for VEGF-induced sprouting and branching of endothelial cells. Signal transduction antibody arrays implicated NRP1 in VEGF-induced activation of p38MAPK. Inclusion of the p38MAPK inhibitor SB203580 in VEGF-A165-containing matrigel plugs led to attenuated angiogenesis and poor association with pericytes. Our data strongly indicate that the ability of VEGF ligands to bind NRP1 influences p38MAPK activation, and formation of functional, pericyte-associated vessels.

Vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates organ-specific host matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression and ovarian cancer invasion

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) regulate each other, contributing to tumor progression. We have previously reported that MMP9 induces the release of tumor VEGF, promoting ascites formation in human ovarian carcinoma xenografts. The aim of this study was to investigate whether tumor-derived VEGF regulated the expression of gelatinase by the stroma, influencing the invasive properties of ovarian tumors. Tumor variants derived from 1A9 human ovarian carcinoma, stably expressing VEGF(121) in the sense (1A9-VS-1) and antisense orientations (1A9-VAS-3), were used. In vivo, zymographic analysis of tumors from 1A9-VS-1 implanted in the peritoneal cavity of nude mice showed higher levels of gelatinases, particularly murine MMP9, indicating that VEGF stimulates host expression of the matrix-degrading enzyme. Murine MMP9 expression was also high in the ovaries of mice bearing 1A9-VS-1 tumors. The effect on host MMP9 activity was organ-specific. The levels of host pro-MMP9 in ovaries correlated with the plasma levels of tumor VEGF and with the selective invasion of the ovaries. Induction of host MMP9 expression in tumors and ovaries was independent of the site of tumor growth as it was seen in mice carrying both intraperitoneal and subcutaneous tumors. The anti-VEGF antibody bevacizumab (Avastin) inhibited MMP9 expression and tumor invasion in the ovaries of mice bearing 1A9-VS-1 tumors. These findings point to a complex cross-talk between VEGF and MMPs in the progression of ovarian tumor and suggest the possibility of using VEGF inhibitors to affect MMP-dependent tumor invasion.

VEGF in biological control

Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) belongs to a family of heparin binding growth factors that include VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, and placental-like growth factor (PLGF). First discovered for its ability to regulate vascular endothelial cell permeability, VEGF is a well-known angiogenic factor that is important for vascular development and maintenance in all mammalian organs. The development of molecular tools and pharmacological agents to selectively inhibit VEGF function and block angiogenesis and/or vascular permeability has led to great promise in the treatment of various cancers, macular degeneration, and wound healing. However, VEGF is also important in animals for the regulation of angiogenesis, stem cell and monocyte/macrophage recruitment, maintenance of kidney and lung barrier functions and neuroprotection. In addition to its role in regulating endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and cell survival, VEGF receptors are also located on many non-endothelial cells and act through autrocrine pathways to regulate cell survival and function. The following review will discuss the role of VEGF in physiological angiogenesis as well as its role in non-angiogenic processes that take place in adult organs.

Modulation of growth factor action by the extracellular matrix

Growth factors were historically defined as molecules produced by the body to regulate cell growth and proliferation. After the identification of their receptors and the intracellular signaling machinery they activate, it is now clear that they are involved in the regulation of multiple processes essential for development and normal tissue function. The present review gives a brief overview of growth factor action. Receptor activation and signaling are discussed, highlighting the role of extracellular matrix interactions.