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Brito-Robinson T, Ayinuola YA, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Plasminogen missense variants and their involvement in cardiovascular and inflammatory disease. Front Cardiovasc Med 2024; 11:1406953. [PMID: 38984351 PMCID: PMC11231438 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2024.1406953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Human plasminogen (PLG), the zymogen of the fibrinolytic protease, plasmin, is a polymorphic protein with two widely distributed codominant alleles, PLG/Asp453 and PLG/Asn453. About 15 other missense or non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) of PLG show major, yet different, relative abundances in world populations. Although the existence of these relatively abundant allelic variants is generally acknowledged, they are often overlooked or assumed to be non-pathogenic. In fact, at least half of those major variants are classified as having conflicting pathogenicity, and it is unclear if they contribute to different molecular phenotypes. From those, PLG/K19E and PLG/A601T are examples of two relatively abundant PLG variants that have been associated with PLG deficiencies (PD), but their pathogenic mechanisms are unclear. On the other hand, approximately 50 rare and ultra-rare PLG missense variants have been reported to cause PD as homozygous or compound heterozygous variants, often leading to a debilitating disease known as ligneous conjunctivitis. The true abundance of PD-associated nsSNPs is unknown since they can remain undetected in heterozygous carriers. However, PD variants may also contribute to other diseases. Recently, the ultra-rare autosomal dominant PLG/K311E has been found to be causative of hereditary angioedema (HAE) with normal C1 inhibitor. Two other rare pathogenic PLG missense variants, PLG/R153G and PLG/V709E, appear to affect platelet function and lead to HAE, respectively. Herein, PLG missense variants that are abundant and/or clinically relevant due to association with disease are examined along with their world distribution. Proposed molecular mechanisms are discussed when known or can be reasonably assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Francis J. Castellino
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, United States
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2
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Brouwer S, Rivera-Hernandez T, Curren BF, Harbison-Price N, De Oliveira DMP, Jespersen MG, Davies MR, Walker MJ. Pathogenesis, epidemiology and control of Group A Streptococcus infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 2023; 21:431-447. [PMID: 36894668 PMCID: PMC9998027 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-023-00865-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus; GAS) is exquisitely adapted to the human host, resulting in asymptomatic infection, pharyngitis, pyoderma, scarlet fever or invasive diseases, with potential for triggering post-infection immune sequelae. GAS deploys a range of virulence determinants to allow colonization, dissemination within the host and transmission, disrupting both innate and adaptive immune responses to infection. Fluctuating global GAS epidemiology is characterized by the emergence of new GAS clones, often associated with the acquisition of new virulence or antimicrobial determinants that are better adapted to the infection niche or averting host immunity. The recent identification of clinical GAS isolates with reduced penicillin sensitivity and increasing macrolide resistance threatens both frontline and penicillin-adjunctive antibiotic treatment. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a GAS research and technology road map and has outlined preferred vaccine characteristics, stimulating renewed interest in the development of safe and effective GAS vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Brouwer
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Bodie F Curren
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nichaela Harbison-Price
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David M P De Oliveira
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Magnus G Jespersen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mark R Davies
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mark J Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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3
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Dey S, Guchhait KC, Manna T, Panda AK, Patra A, Mondal SK, Ghosh C. Evolutionary and compositional analysis of streptokinase including its interaction with plasminogen: An in silico approach. GENE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2022.101689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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4
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Ayinuola YA, Brito-Robinson T, Ayinuola O, Beck JE, Cruz-Topete D, Lee SW, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Streptococcus co-opts a conformational lock in human plasminogen to facilitate streptokinase cleavage and bacterial virulence. J Biol Chem 2021; 296:100099. [PMID: 33208461 PMCID: PMC7948469 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.016262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Virulent strains of Streptococcus pyogenes (gram-positive group A Streptococcus pyogenes [GAS]) recruit host single-chain human plasminogen (hPg) to the cell surface-where in the case of Pattern D strains of GAS, hPg binds directly to the cells through a surface receptor, plasminogen-binding group A streptococcal M-protein (PAM). The coinherited Pattern D GAS-secreted streptokinase (SK2b) then accelerates cleavage of hPg at the R561-V562 peptide bond, resulting in the disulfide-linked two-chain protease, human plasmin (hPm). hPm localizes on the bacterial surface, assisting bacterial dissemination via proteolysis of host defense proteins. Studies using isolated domains from PAM and hPg revealed that the A-domain of PAM binds to the hPg kringle-2 module (K2hPg), but how this relates to the function of the full-length proteins is unclear. Herein, we use intact proteins to show that the lysine-binding site of K2hPg is a major determinant of the activation-resistant T-conformation of hPg. The binding of PAM to the lysine-binding site of K2hPg relaxes the conformation of hPg, leading to a greatly enhanced activation rate of hPg by SK2b. Domain swapping between hPg and mouse Pg emphasizes the importance of the Pg latent heavy chain (residues 1-561) in PAM binding and shows that while SK2b binds to both hPg and mouse Pg, the activation properties of streptokinase are strictly attributed to the serine protease domain (residues 562-791) of hPg. Overall, these data show that native hPg is locked in an activation-resistant conformation that is relaxed upon its direct binding to PAM, allowing hPm to form and provide GAS cells with a proteolytic surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yetunde A Ayinuola
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Teresa Brito-Robinson
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Olawole Ayinuola
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Julia E Beck
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Diana Cruz-Topete
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Shaun W Lee
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Francis J Castellino
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA.
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5
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Keramati M, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. In silico design and in vitro validation of a novel PCR-RFLP assay for determination of phylogenetic clusters of streptokinase gene alleles in streptococci groups. Microb Pathog 2019; 139:103862. [PMID: 31707080 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Streptokinase (SK), a heterogeneous plasminogen (Pg) activator protein secreted by groups A, C and G streptococci (GAS/GCS/GGS) is a virulence factor composed of three structural domains; SKα/SKβ/SKγ. Phylogenetic analysis of the major variable region of SKβ (sk-V1; nucleotides 448-791; 343bp) which classifies the SK alleles into SK1/SK2 clusters and SK2a/SK2b sub-clusters, is an approved assay to categorize clinical/natural streptococcal-isolates into co-related functional/pathogenesis groups. Herein, we describe a novel PCR-RFLP assay that in combination with Numerical Taxonomy and multivariate analysis System (NTSYS) resulted to dendrograms with complete adaption to that of the phylogenetic analysis of sk-V1-based clustering. In silico analyses by 30 restriction enzymes on GenBank-acquired sk-V1 sequences of known streptococcal clusters, resulted to the selection of "BsrI, MseI and Tsp45I″ enzymes that produced proper patterns to construct the expected dendrograms. In vitro analysis of the selected enzymes on clinical isolates of GAS/GCS/GGS validated the production of the same in silico-observed digestion patterns. Comparison of the constructed dendrogram and phylogenetic trees of selected GenBank and clinical isolates of streptococci indicated complete adaptation. Assessment of Pg-activation activity in selected clinical isolates indicated the expected co-related functionalities of the classified SK-clusters by the invented PCR-RFLP/NTSYS method. The simplicity of the assay relieves the need of sequencing/phylogenetic analyses for SK-clustering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malihe Keramati
- Nano-Biotechnology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran (PII), No. 69, Pasteur Ave, Tehran, 1316943551, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Mehdi Aslani
- Microbiology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran (PII), No. 69, Pasteur Ave., Tehran, 1316943551, Iran.
| | - Farzin Roohvand
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran (PII), No. 69, Pasteur Ave., Tehran, 1316943551, Iran.
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Comparative Analysis of Blood Clot, Plasma Rich in Growth Factors and Platelet-Rich Fibrin Resistance to Bacteria-Induced Fibrinolysis. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7090328. [PMID: 31500263 PMCID: PMC6780161 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alveolar osteitis (AO) is a common, painful postoperative complication after tooth extraction. Fibrinolytic activity in the extraction socket is one etiological factor. Platelet concentrates are used to prevent and treat AO. The aim of this study was to find out whether the positive effect of platelet concentrates can be related to resistance to bacteria-induced fibrinolysis. Blood from 45 human volunteers was used to prepare four media: blood clot medium as control group; PRF and PRGF first fraction (PRGF I) and PRGF second fraction (PRGF II) as study groups. Additionally, collected blood was used for blood plasma preparation on which evaluation of initial value of d-dimer concentration was performed. A solution of five different microbes (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumonia, Bacillus cereus, and Candida albicans) was adjusted to 0.5 McFarland (1 × 108 CFU/mL) and then diluted to 0.25 McFarland (0.5 × 108 CFU/mL). The d-dimer concentration was evaluated after one and three hours of bacteria exposure. The resistance to fibrinolysis was not statistically distinguished among any media groups at any time. S. pneumoniae was statistically active in PRF after three hours. C. albicans was statistically active in PRGF II after one hour and in PRF between the first and third hour and after three hours. S. aureus and B. cereus were statistically active in PRGF II after three hours. S. pyogenes was statistically active after one hour, between the first and third hour, and after the third hour in all groups. S. pyogenes was the most active bacterium. Different blood formulations were not distinguishable based on resistance to bacteria-induced fibrinolysis. Low fibrinolytic properties of the found major microbes suggests that bacteria-induced fibrinolysis is one of the leading causes of absence of a clot in a post-extraction socket to be clinically insignificant. The initial absence of a clot or its mechanical elimination during formation or the healing period are major causes of dry socket.
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7
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Soderholm AT, Walker MJ. A Host Proteome Atlas of Streptococcus pyogenes Infection. Cell Syst 2019; 6:536-538. [PMID: 29792824 DOI: 10.1016/j.cels.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiplex quantitative proteomics analysis of mice infected with Group A Streptococcus reveals organ-specific biomarkers of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia T Soderholm
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Mark J Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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8
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Rafipour M, Keramati M, Aslani MM, Arashkia A, Roohvand F. The β-domain of streptokinase affects several functionalities, including specific/proteolytic activity kinetics. FEBS Open Bio 2019; 9:1259-1269. [PMID: 31087538 PMCID: PMC6609762 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptokinase (SK) is a plasminogen activator which converts inactive plasminogen (Pg) to active plasmin (Pm), which cleaves fibrin clots. SK secreted by groups A, C, and G Streptococcus (SKA/SKC/SKG) is composed of three domains: SKα, SKβ and SKγ. Previous domain‐swapping studies between SK1/SK2b‐cluster variants revealed that SKβ plays a major role in the activation of human Pg. Here, we carried out domain‐swapping between skcg‐SK/SK2‐cluster variants to determine the involvement of SKβ in several SK functionalities, including specific/proteolytic activity kinetics, fibrinogen‐bound Pg activation and α2‐antiplasmin resistance. Our results indicate that SKβ has a minor to determining role in these diverse functionalities for skcg‐SK and SK2b variants, which might potentially be accompanied by few critical residues acting as hot spots. Our findings enhance our understanding of the roles of SKβ and hot spots in different functional characteristics of SK clusters and may aid in the engineering of fibrin‐specific variants of SK for breaking down blood clots with potentially higher efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Rafipour
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.,Microbiology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Malihe Keramati
- NanoBiotechnology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Arash Arashkia
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farzin Roohvand
- Virology Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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9
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Turner CE, Bubba L, Efstratiou A. Pathogenicity Factors in Group C and G Streptococci. Microbiol Spectr 2019; 7:10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0020-2018. [PMID: 31111818 PMCID: PMC11026075 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0020-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Initially recognized zoonoses, streptococci belonging to Lancefield group C (GCS) and G (GGS) were subsequently recognised as human pathogens causing a diverse range of symptoms, from asymptomatic carriage to life threatening diseases. Their taxonomy has changed during the last decade. Asymptomatic carriage is <4% amongst the human population and invasive infections are often in association with chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases or chronic skin infections. Other clinical manifestations include acute pharyngitis, pneumonia, endocarditis, bacteraemia and toxic-shock syndrome. Post streptococcal sequalae such as rheumatic fever and acute glomerulonephritis have also been described but mainly in developed countries and amongst specific populations. Putative virulence determinants for these organisms include adhesins, toxins, and other factors that are essential for dissemination in human tissues and for interference with the host immune responses. High nucleotide similarities among virulence genes and their association with mobile genetic elements supports the hypothesis of extensive horizontal gene transfer events between the various pyogenic streptococcal species belonging to Lancefield groups A, C and G. A better understanding of the mechanisms of pathogenesis should be apparent by whole-genome sequencing, and this would result in more effective clinical strategies for the pyogenic group in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E Turner
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology, The Florey Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Laura Bubba
- Reference Microbiology Division, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
- European Programme for Public Health Microbiology Training (EUPHEM), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Androulla Efstratiou
- Reference Microbiology Division, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
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10
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Andreoni F, Ugolini F, Keller N, Neff A, Nizet V, Hollands A, Marques Maggio E, Zinkernagel AS, Schuepbach RA. Immunoglobulin Attenuates Streptokinase-Mediated Virulence in Streptococcus dysgalactiae Subspecies equisimilis Necrotizing Fasciitis. J Infect Dis 2019; 217:270-279. [PMID: 29099935 PMCID: PMC7263839 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jix560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) retains a very high mortality rate despite prompt and adequate antibiotic treatment and surgical debridement. Necrotizing fasciitis has recently been associated withStreptococcus dysgalactiae subspeciesequisimilis (SDSE). Methods We investigated the causes of a very severe clinical manifestation of SDSE-NF by assessing both host and pathogen factors. Results We found a lack of streptokinase-function blocking antibodies in the patient resulting in increased streptokinase-mediated fibrinolysis and bacterial spread. At the same time, the clinical SDSE isolate produced very high levels of streptokinase. Exogenous immunoglobulin Gs (ex-IgGs) efficiently blocked streptokinase-mediated fibrinolysis in vitro, indicating a protective role against the action of streptokinase. In vivo, SDSE infection severity was also attenuated by ex-IgGs in a NF mouse model. Conclusions These findings illustrate for the first time that the lack of specific antibodies against streptococcal virulence factors, such as streptokinase, may contribute to NF disease severity. This can be counteracted by ex-IgGs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Andreoni
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fabio Ugolini
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland.,Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Keller
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrina Neff
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, San Diego, California.,Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, San Diego, California
| | - Andrew Hollands
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, San Diego, California
| | - Ewerton Marques Maggio
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annelies S Zinkernagel
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reto A Schuepbach
- Institute of Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Qiu C, Yuan Y, Liang Z, Lee SW, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Variations in the secondary structures of PAM proteins influence their binding affinities to human plasminogen. J Struct Biol 2019; 206:193-203. [PMID: 30880082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
M-proteins (M-Prts) are major virulence determinants of Group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) that are covalently anchored to the cell wall at their conserved COOH-termini while the NH2-terminal regions extend through the capsule into extracellular space. Functional M-Prts are also secreted and/or released from GAS cells where they exist as helical coiled-coil dimers in solution. Certain GAS strains (Pattern D) uniquely express an M-protein (plasminogen-binding group A streptococcal M-protein; PAM) that directly interacts with human plasminogen (hPg), a process strongly implicated in the virulence of these strains. M-Prt expressed by the emm gene is employed to serotype over 250 known strains of GAS, ∼20 of which are hitherto found to express PAMs. We have developed a modular structural model of the PAM dimer that describes the roles of different domains of this protein in various functions. While the helical COOH-terminal domains of PAM are essential for dimerization in solution, regions of its NH2-terminal domains also exhibit a weak potential to dimerize. We find that temperature controls the open (unwound) or closed (wound) states of the functional NH2-terminal domains of PAM. As temperature increases, α-helices are dramatically reduced, which concomitantly destabilizes the helical coiled-coil PAM dimers. PAMs with two a-repeats within the variable NH2-terminal A-domain (class I/III) bind to hPg tightly, but natural PAM isolates with a single a-repeat in this domain (class II) display dramatic changes in hPg binding with temperature. We conclude that coexistence of two a-repeats in PAM is critical to achieve optimal binding to hPg, especially in its monomeric form, at the biologically relevant temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunjia Qiu
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Yue Yuan
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Zhong Liang
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Shaun W Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States
| | - Francis J Castellino
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, United States.
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12
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Frick IM, Shannon O, Neumann A, Karlsson C, Wikström M, Björck L. Streptococcal inhibitor of complement (SIC) modulates fibrinolysis and enhances bacterial survival within fibrin clots. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:13578-13591. [PMID: 30002122 PMCID: PMC6120194 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.001988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Some strains of the bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes secrete protein SIC (streptococcal inhibitor of complement), including strains of the clinically relevant M1 serotype. SIC neutralizes the effect of a number of antimicrobial proteins/peptides and interferes with the function of the host complement system. Previous studies have shown that some S. pyogenes proteins bind and modulate coagulation and fibrinolysis factors, raising the possibility that SIC also may interfere with the activity of these factors. Here we show that SIC interacts with both human thrombin and plasminogen, key components of coagulation and fibrinolysis. We found that during clot formation, SIC binds fibrin through its central region and that SIC inhibits fibrinolysis by interacting with plasminogen. Flow cytometry results indicated that SIC and plasminogen bind simultaneously to S. pyogenes bacteria, and fluorescence microscopy revealed co-localization of the two proteins at the bacterial surface. As a consequence, SIC-expressing bacteria entrapped in clots inhibit fibrinolysis, leading to delayed bacterial escape from the clots as compared with mutant bacteria lacking SIC. Moreover, within the clots SIC-expressing bacteria were protected against killing. In an animal model of subcutaneous infection, SIC-expressing bacteria exhibited a delayed systemic spread. These results demonstrate that the bacterial protein SIC interferes with coagulation and fibrinolysis and thereby enhances bacterial survival, a finding that has significant implications for S. pyogenes virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga-Maria Frick
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden and
| | - Oonagh Shannon
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden and
| | - Ariane Neumann
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden and
| | - Christofer Karlsson
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden and
| | - Mats Wikström
- the University of Copenhagen, Protein Function and Interactions Group, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lars Björck
- From the Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Division of Infection Medicine, Lund University, SE-22184 Lund, Sweden and
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13
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Kazemi F, Arab SS, Mohajel N, Keramati M, Niknam N, Aslani MM, Roohvand F. Computational simulations assessment of mutations impact on streptokinase (SK) from a group G streptococci with enhanced activity - insights into the functional roles of structural dynamics flexibility of SK and stabilization of SK-μplasmin catalytic complex. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2018; 37:1944-1955. [PMID: 29726798 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2018.1472668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Streptokinase (SK), a plasminogen activator (PA) that converts inactive plasminogen (Pg) to plasmin (Pm), is a protein secreted by groups A, C, and G streptococci (GAS, GCS, and GGS, respectively), with high sequence divergence and functional heterogeneity. While roles of some residual changes in altered SK functionality are shown, the underlying structural mechanisms are less known. Herein, using computational approaches, we analyzed the conformational basis for the increased activity of SK from a GGS (SKG132) isolate with four natural residual substitutions (Ile33Phe, Arg45Gln, Asn228Lys, Phe287Ile) compared to the standard GCS (SKC). Using the crystal structure of SK.Pm catalytic complex as main template SKC.μPm catalytic complex was modeled through homology modeling process and validated by several online validation servers. Subsequently, SKG132.μPm structure was constructed by altering the corresponding residual substitutions. Results of three independent MD simulations showed increased RMSF values for SKG132.μPm, indicating the enhanced structural flexibility compared to SKC.μPm, specially in 170 and 250 loops and three regions: R1 (149-161), R2 (182-215) and R3 (224-229). In parallel, the average number of Hydrogen bonds in 170 loop, R2 and R3 (especially for Asn228Lys) of SKG132 compared to that of the SKC was decreased. Accordingly, residue interaction networks (RINs) analyses indicated that Asn228Lys might induce more level of structural flexibility by generation of free Lys256, while Phe287Ile and Ile33Phe enhanced the stabilization of the SKG132.μPm catalytic complex. These results denoted the potential role of the optimal dynamic state and stabilized catalytic complex for increased PA potencies of SK as a thrombolytic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faegheh Kazemi
- a Virology Department , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran.,d Microbiology Department , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Seyed Shahriar Arab
- b Biophysics Department, Faculty of Biological Sciences , Tarbiat Modares University (TMU) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Nasir Mohajel
- a Virology Department , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Malihe Keramati
- c Nano-Biotechnology Department , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
| | - Niloofar Niknam
- b Biophysics Department, Faculty of Biological Sciences , Tarbiat Modares University (TMU) , Tehran , Iran
| | | | - Farzin Roohvand
- a Virology Department , Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran , Iran
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14
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Rox K, Jansen R, Loof TG, Gillen CM, Bernecker S, Walker MJ, Chhatwal GS, Müller R. Linoleic and palmitoleic acid block streptokinase-mediated plasminogen activation and reduce severity of invasive group A streptococcal infection. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11798. [PMID: 28924140 PMCID: PMC5603603 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11276-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In contrast to mild infections of Group A Streptococcus (GAS) invasive infections of GAS still pose a serious health hazard: GAS disseminates from sterile sites into the blood stream or deep tissues and causes sepsis or necrotizing fasciitis. In this case antibiotics do not provide an effective cure as the bacteria are capable to hide from them very quickly. Therefore, new remedies are urgently needed. Starting from a myxobacterial natural products screening campaign, we identified two fatty acids isolated from myxobacteria, linoleic and palmitoleic acid, specifically blocking streptokinase-mediated activation of plasminogen and thereby preventing streptococci from hijacking the host’s plasminogen/plasmin system. This activity is not inherited by other fatty acids such as oleic acid and is not attributable to the killing of streptococci. Moreover, both fatty acids are superior in their inhibitory properties compared to two clinically used drugs (tranexamic or ε-amino caproic acid) as they show 500–1000 fold lower IC50 values. Using a humanized plasminogen mouse model mimicking the clinical situation of a local GAS infection that becomes systemic, we demonstrate that these fatty acids ameliorate invasive GAS infection significantly. Consequently, linoleic and palmitoleic acid are possible new options to combat GAS invasive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Rox
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany.,Central facility for Microscopy, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rolf Jansen
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Torsten G Loof
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany.,Infection Immunology Research Group, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Christine M Gillen
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Steffen Bernecker
- Department of Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Mark J Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Gursharan Singh Chhatwal
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rolf Müller
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany. .,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Braunschweig-Hannover, Hannover, Germany.
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15
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Glinton K, Beck J, Liang Z, Qiu C, Lee SW, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Variable region in streptococcal M-proteins provides stable binding with host fibrinogen for plasminogen-mediated bacterial invasion. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:6775-6785. [PMID: 28280245 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.768937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Dimeric M-proteins (M-Prt) in group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) are surface-expressed virulence factors implicated in processes that contribute to the pathogenicity of infection. Sequence analyses of various GAS M-Prts have shown that they contain a highly conserved sortase A-dependent cell wall-anchored C terminus, whereas the surface-exposed N terminus is highly variable, a feature used for identification and serotyping of various GAS strains. This variability also allows for strain-specific responses that suppress host defenses. Previous studies have indeed identified the N-terminal M-Prt B-domain as the site interacting with antiphagocytotic human-host fibrinogen (hFg). Herein, we show that hFg strongly interacts with M-Prts containing highly variable B-domains. We further demonstrate that specific GAS clinical isolates display high affinity for the D-domain of hFg, and this interaction allowed for subsequent surface binding of human-host plasminogen (hPg) to the E-domain of hFg. This GAS surface-bound hPg is then activated by GAS-secreted streptokinase, leading to the generation of an invasive proteolytic bacterial surface. Our results underscore the importance of the human fibrinolytic system in host-pathogen interactions in invasive GAS infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristofor Glinton
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and.,the Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry and
| | - Julia Beck
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and.,the Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry and
| | - Zhong Liang
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and
| | - Cunjia Qiu
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and.,the Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry and
| | - Shaun W Lee
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and.,Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and.,the Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry and
| | - Francis J Castellino
- From the W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and .,the Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry and
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16
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Sequence and kinetic analyses of streptokinase from two group G streptococci with high fibrin-dependent plasminogen activities and the identification of novel altered amino acids as potential hot spots. Biotechnol Lett 2017; 39:889-895. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-017-2310-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Huish S, Thelwell C, Longstaff C. Activity Regulation by Fibrinogen and Fibrin of Streptokinase from Streptococcus Pyogenes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170936. [PMID: 28125743 PMCID: PMC5268773 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptokinase is a virulence factor of streptococci and acts as a plasminogen activator to generate the serine protease plasmin which promotes bacterial metastasis. Streptokinase isolated from group C streptococci has been used therapeutically as a thrombolytic agent for many years and its mechanism of action has been extensively studied. However, group A streptococci are associated with invasive and potentially fatal infections, but less detail is available on the mechanism of action of streptokinase from these bacteria. We have expressed recombinant streptokinase from a group C strain to investigate the therapeutic molecule (here termed rSK-H46A) and a molecule isolated from a cluster 2a strain from group A (rSK-M1GAS) which is known to produce the fibrinogen binding, M1 protein, and is associated with life-threatening disease. Detailed enzyme kinetic models have been prepared which show how fibrinogen-streptokinase-plasminogen complexes regulate plasmin generation, and also the effect of fibrin interactions. As is the case with rSK-H46A our data with rSK-M1GAS support a "trigger and bullet" mechanism requiring the initial formation of SK•plasminogen complexes which are replaced by more active SK•plasmin as plasmin becomes available. This model includes the important fibrinogen interactions that stimulate plasmin generation. In a fibrin matrix rSK-M1GAS has a 24 fold higher specific activity than the fibrin-specific thrombolytic agent, tissue plasminogen activator, and 15 fold higher specific activity than rSK-H46A. However, in vivo fibrin specificity would be undermined by fibrinogen stimulation. Given the observed importance of M1 surface receptors or released M1 protein to virulence of cluster 2a strain streptococci, studies on streptokinase activity regulation by fibrin and fibrinogen may provide additional routes to addressing bacterial invasion and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sian Huish
- Component development laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge Donor Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Thelwell
- Biotherapeutics Section, National Institute for Biological Standard and Control, South Mimms, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Longstaff
- Biotherapeutics Section, National Institute for Biological Standard and Control, South Mimms, Herts, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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18
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Davis RW, Eggleston H, Johnson F, Nahrendorf M, Bock PE, Peterson T, Panizzi P. In Vivo Tracking of Streptococcal Infections of Subcutaneous Origin in a Murine Model. Mol Imaging Biol 2016; 17:793-801. [PMID: 25921659 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-015-0856-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Generation of plasmin in vivo by Streptococcus pyogenes is thought to localize the active protease complexes to the pathogen surface to aid in tissue dissemination. Here, we chose to follow cutaneous streptococcal infections by the use of non-invasive bioluminescence imaging to determine if this pathogen can be followed by this approach and the extent of bacterial spread in the absence of canonical plasminogen activation by streptokinase. PROCEDURES Mice were injected subcutaneously with either bioluminescent strains of streptococci, namely Xen20 and Xen10 or S. pyogenes ALAB49. Bioluminescence imaging was performed daily and results were correlated with microbiological and histological analyses. RESULTS Comparative analysis of chronologic non-invasive datasets indicated that Xen20 did not disseminate from the initial infection site. Contrary to this, microbiological and histological analyses of Xen20 mice for total bacterial burden indicated sepsis and widespread pathogen involvement. CONCLUSIONS The use of bioluminescence in microbe-based studies requires genomic and pathologic characterization to correlate imaging results with underlying pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W Davis
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, 4306 Walker Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Heather Eggleston
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, 4306 Walker Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Frances Johnson
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, 4306 Walker Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Matthias Nahrendorf
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Simches Research Building, 185 Cambridge St., Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Paul E Bock
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, & Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Tiffany Peterson
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, 4306 Walker Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Peter Panizzi
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, 4306 Walker Building, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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19
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Sumitomo T, Nakata M, Higashino M, Yamaguchi M, Kawabata S. Group A Streptococcus exploits human plasminogen for bacterial translocation across epithelial barrier via tricellular tight junctions. Sci Rep 2016; 7:20069. [PMID: 26822058 PMCID: PMC4731814 DOI: 10.1038/srep20069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-specific pathogen responsible for local suppurative and life-threatening invasive systemic diseases. Interaction of GAS with human plasminogen (PLG) is a salient characteristic for promoting their systemic dissemination. In the present study, a serotype M28 strain was found predominantly localized in tricellular tight junctions of epithelial cells cultured in the presence of PLG. Several lines of evidence indicated that interaction of PLG with tricellulin, a major component of tricellular tight junctions, is crucial for bacterial localization. A site-directed mutagenesis approach revealed that lysine residues at positions 217 and 252 within the extracellular loop of tricellulin play important roles in PLG-binding activity. Additionally, we demonstrated that PLG functions as a molecular bridge between tricellulin and streptococcal surface enolase (SEN). The wild type strain efficiently translocated across the epithelial monolayer, accompanied by cleavage of transmembrane junctional proteins. In contrast, amino acid substitutions in the PLG-binding motif of SEN markedly compromised those activities. Notably, the interaction of PLG with SEN was dependent on PLG species specificity, which influenced the efficiency of bacterial penetration. Our findings provide insight into the mechanism by which GAS exploits host PLG for acceleration of bacterial invasion into deeper tissues via tricellular tight junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Sumitomo
- Department of Oral and Molecular Microbiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masanobu Nakata
- Department of Oral and Molecular Microbiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Miharu Higashino
- Department of Oral and Molecular Microbiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masaya Yamaguchi
- Department of Oral and Molecular Microbiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shigetada Kawabata
- Department of Oral and Molecular Microbiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, 1-8, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
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20
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De Oliveira DMP, Law RHP, Ly D, Cook SM, Quek AJ, McArthur JD, Whisstock JC, Sanderson-Smith ML. Preferential Acquisition and Activation of Plasminogen Glycoform II by PAM Positive Group A Streptococcal Isolates. Biochemistry 2015; 54:3960-8. [PMID: 26029848 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Plasminogen (Plg) circulates in the host as two predominant glycoforms. Glycoform I Plg (GI-Plg) contains glycosylation sites at Asn289 and Thr346, whereas glycoform II Plg (GII-Plg) is exclusively glycosylated at Thr346. Surface plasmon resonance experiments demonstrated that Plg binding group A streptococcal M protein (PAM) exhibits comparative equal affinity for GI- and GII-Plg in the "closed" conformation (for GII-Plg, KD = 27.4 nM; for GI-Plg, KD = 37.0 nM). When Plg was in the "open" conformation, PAM exhibited an 11-fold increase in affinity for GII-Plg (KD = 2.8 nM) compared with that for GI-Plg (KD = 33.2 nM). The interaction of PAM with Plg is believed to be mediated by lysine binding sites within kringle (KR) 2 of Plg. PAM-GI-Plg interactions were fully inhibited with 100 mM lysine analogue ε-aminocaproic acid (εACA), whereas PAM-GII-Plg interactions were shown to be weakened but not inhibited in the presence of 400 mM εACA. In contrast, binding to the KR1-3 domains of GII-Plg (angiostatin) by PAM was completely inhibited in the presence 5 mM εACA. Along with PAM, emm pattern D GAS isolates express a phenotypically distinct SK variant (type 2b SK) that requires Plg ligands such as PAM to activate Plg. Type 2b SK was able to generate an active site and activate GII-Plg at a rate significantly higher than that of GI-Plg when bound to PAM. Taken together, these data suggest that GAS selectively recruits and activates GII-Plg. Furthermore, we propose that the interaction between PAM and Plg may be partially mediated by a secondary binding site outside of KR2, affected by glycosylation at Asn289.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M P De Oliveira
- †Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
| | - Ruby H P Law
- ‡Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne 3168, Australia
| | - Diane Ly
- †Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
| | - Simon M Cook
- †Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
| | - Adam J Quek
- ‡Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne 3168, Australia
| | - Jason D McArthur
- †Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
| | - James C Whisstock
- ‡Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne 3168, Australia
| | - Martina L Sanderson-Smith
- †Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia
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21
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Chandrahas V, Glinton K, Liang Z, Donahue DL, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Direct Host Plasminogen Binding to Bacterial Surface M-protein in Pattern D Strains of Streptococcus pyogenes Is Required for Activation by Its Natural Coinherited SK2b Protein. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:18833-42. [PMID: 26070561 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.655365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptokinase (SK), secreted by Group A Streptococcus (GAS), is a single-chain ∼47-kDa protein containing three consecutive primary sequence regions that comprise its α, β, and γ modules. Phylogenetic analyses of the variable β-domain sequences from different GAS strains suggest that SKs can be arranged into two clusters, SK1 and SK2, with a subdivision of SK2 into SK2a and SK2b. SK2b is secreted by skin-tropic Pattern D M-protein strains that also express plasminogen (human Pg (hPg)) binding Group A streptococcal M-protein (PAM) as its major cell surface M-protein. SK2a-expressing strains are associated with nasopharynx tropicity, and many of these strains express human fibrinogen (hFg) binding Pattern A-C M-proteins, e.g. M1. PAM interacts with hPg directly, whereas M1 binds to hPg indirectly via M1-bound hFg. Subsequently, SK is secreted by GAS and activates hPg to plasmin (hPm), thus generating a proteolytic surface on GAS that enhances its dissemination. Due to these different modes of hPg/hPm recognition by GAS, full characterizations of the mechanisms of activation of hPg by SK2a and SK2b and their roles in GAS virulence are important topics. To more fully examine these subjects, isogenic chimeric SK- and M-protein-containing GAS strains were generated, and the virulence of these chimeric strains were analyzed in mice. We show that SK and M-protein alterations influenced the virulence of GAS and were associated with the different natures of hPg activation and hPm binding. These studies demonstrate that GAS virulence can be explained by disparate hPg activation by SK2a and SK2b coupled with the coinherited M-proteins of these strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishwanatha Chandrahas
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Kristofor Glinton
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Zhong Liang
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Deborah L Donahue
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Francis J Castellino
- From the W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
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22
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Abstract
Group A streptococci (GAS) express soluble and surface-bound virulence factors. Secreted streptokinase (SK) allelic variants exhibit varying abilities to activate host plasminogen (Pg), and GAS pathogenicity is associated with Pg activation and localization of the resulting plasmin (Pm) on the bacterial surface to promote dissemination. The various mechanisms by which GAS usurp the host proteolytic system are discussed, including the molecular sexuality mechanism of conformational activation of the Pg zymogen (Pg*) and subsequent proteolytic activation of substrate Pg by the S•KPg* and SK•Pm catalytic complexes. Substantial progress has been made to delineate both processes in a unified mechanism. Pm coats the bacteria by direct and indirect binding pathways involving plasminogen-binding group A streptococcal M-like (PAM) protein and host fibrin(ogen). Transgenic mouse models using human Pg are being optimized to mimic infections by SK variants in humans and to define in vivo combined mechanisms of these variants and PAM.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Verhamme
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - P R Panizzi
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - P E Bock
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
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23
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Papenfort K, Vanderpool CK. Target activation by regulatory RNAs in bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2015; 39:362-78. [PMID: 25934124 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fuv016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are commonly known to repress gene expression by base pairing to target mRNAs. In many cases, sRNAs base pair with and sequester mRNA ribosome-binding sites, resulting in translational repression and accelerated transcript decay. In contrast, a growing number of examples of translational activation and mRNA stabilization by sRNAs have now been documented. A given sRNA often employs a conserved region to interact with and regulate both repressed and activated targets. However, the mechanisms underlying activation differ substantially from repression. Base pairing resulting in target activation can involve sRNA interactions with the 5(') untranslated region (UTR), the coding sequence or the 3(') UTR of the target mRNAs. Frequently, the activities of protein factors such as cellular ribonucleases and the RNA chaperone Hfq are required for activation. Bacterial sRNAs, including those that function as activators, frequently control stress response pathways or virulence-associated functions required for immediate responses to changing environments. This review aims to summarize recent advances in knowledge regarding target mRNA activation by bacterial sRNAs, highlighting the molecular mechanisms and biological relevance of regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Papenfort
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA Department of Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Carin K Vanderpool
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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24
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McNeilly CL, McMillan DJ. Horizontal gene transfer and recombination in Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:676. [PMID: 25566202 PMCID: PMC4266089 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (SDSE) is a human pathogen that colonizes the skin or throat, and causes a range of diseases from relatively benign pharyngitis to potentially fatal invasive diseases. While not as virulent as the close relative Streptococcus pyogenes the two share a number of virulence factors and are known to coexist in a human host. Both pre- and post-genomic studies have revealed that horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and recombination occurs between these two organisms and plays a major role in shaping the population structure of SDSE. This review summarizes our current knowledge of HGT and recombination in the evolution of SDSE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia L McNeilly
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - David J McMillan
- Inflammation and Healing Research Cluster, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast , Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
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25
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Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014. [PMID: 24696436 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00101-13)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.
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Walker MJ, Barnett TC, McArthur JD, Cole JN, Gillen CM, Henningham A, Sriprakash KS, Sanderson-Smith ML, Nizet V. Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:264-301. [PMID: 24696436 PMCID: PMC3993104 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00101-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 556] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as group A Streptococcus (GAS), causes mild human infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo and serious infections such as necrotizing fasciitis and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Furthermore, repeated GAS infections may trigger autoimmune diseases, including acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, acute rheumatic fever, and rheumatic heart disease. Combined, these diseases account for over half a million deaths per year globally. Genomic and molecular analyses have now characterized a large number of GAS virulence determinants, many of which exhibit overlap and redundancy in the processes of adhesion and colonization, innate immune resistance, and the capacity to facilitate tissue barrier degradation and spread within the human host. This improved understanding of the contribution of individual virulence determinants to the disease process has led to the formulation of models of GAS disease progression, which may lead to better treatment and intervention strategies. While GAS remains sensitive to all penicillins and cephalosporins, rising resistance to other antibiotics used in disease treatment is an increasing worldwide concern. Several GAS vaccine formulations that elicit protective immunity in animal models have shown promise in nonhuman primate and early-stage human trials. The development of a safe and efficacious commercial human vaccine for the prophylaxis of GAS disease remains a high priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Timothy C. Barnett
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason D. McArthur
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Jason N. Cole
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Christine M. Gillen
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anna Henningham
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and the Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - K. S. Sriprakash
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Martina L. Sanderson-Smith
- School of Biological Sciences and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California, USA
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Zhang Y, Mayfield JA, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. The β-domain of cluster 2b streptokinase is a major determinant for the regulation of its plasminogen activation activity by cellular plasminogen receptors. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 444:595-8. [PMID: 24486550 PMCID: PMC3984925 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.01.109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cluster 2b streptokinase (SK2b), secreted by invasive skin-trophic strains of Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS), is a human plasminogen (hPg) activator that optimally functions when human plasma hPg is bound, via its kringle-2 domain, to cognizant bacterial cells through the a1a2 domain of the major cellular hPg receptor, Plasminogen-binding group A streptococcal M-like protein (PAM). Another class of streptokinases (SK1), secreted primarily by GAS strains that possess affinity for pharyngeal infections, does not require PAM-bound hPg for optimal activity. We find herein that replacement of the central β-domain of SK2b with the same module from SK1 reduces the dependency of SK2b on PAM, and the converse is true when the β-domain of SK1 is replaced with this same region of SK2b. These data suggest that simple evolutionary shuttling of protein domains in GAS can be employed by GAS to rapidly generate strains that differ in tissue tropism and invasive capability and allow the bacteria to survive different challenges by the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueling Zhang
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA; Institute of Animal Sciences, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150086, China
| | - Jeffrey A Mayfield
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Francis J Castellino
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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Site-restricted plasminogen activation mediated by group A streptococcal streptokinase variants. Biochem J 2014; 458:23-31. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20131305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
By examining the roles of bacterial and host-derived cofactors in streptokinase-mediated plasminogen activation, we find that phenotypic streptokinase variation functionally underpins a pathogenic mechanism whereby streptokinase variants differentially focus plasminogen activation, leading to specific niche adaption within the host.
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Agrahari G, Liang Z, Mayfield JA, Balsara RD, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Complement-mediated opsonization of invasive group A Streptococcus pyogenes strain AP53 is regulated by the bacterial two-component cluster of virulence responder/sensor (CovRS) system. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:27494-27504. [PMID: 23928307 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.494864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) strain AP53 is a primary isolate from a patient with necrotizing fasciitis. These AP53 cells contain an inactivating mutation in the sensor component of the cluster of virulence (cov) responder (R)/sensor (S) two-component gene regulatory system (covRS), which enhances the virulence of the primary strain, AP53/covR(+)S(-). However, specific mechanisms by which the covRS system regulates the survival of GAS in humans are incomplete. Here, we show a key role for covRS in the regulation of opsonophagocytosis of AP53 by human neutrophils. AP53/covR(+)S(-) cells displayed potent binding of host complement inhibitors of C3 convertase, viz. Factor H (FH) and C4-binding protein (C4BP), which concomitantly led to minimal C3b deposition on AP53 cells, further showing that these plasma protein inhibitors are active on GAS cells. This resulted in weak killing of the bacteria by human neutrophils and a corresponding high death rate of mice after injection of these cells. After targeted allelic alteration of covS(-) to wild-type covS (covS(+)), a dramatic loss of FH and C4BP binding to the AP53/covR(+)S(+) cells was observed. This resulted in elevated C3b deposition on AP53/covR(+)S(+) cells, a high level of opsonophagocytosis by human neutrophils, and a very low death rate of mice infected with AP53/covR(+)S(+). We show that covRS is a critical transcriptional regulator of genes directing AP53 killing by neutrophils and regulates the levels of the receptors for FH and C4BP, which we identify as the products of the fba and enn genes, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garima Agrahari
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | | | | | - Rashna D Balsara
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Victoria A Ploplis
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
| | - Francis J Castellino
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556.
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Zhang Y, Liang Z, Glinton K, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Functional differences between Streptococcus pyogenes cluster 1 and cluster 2b streptokinases are determined by their β-domains. FEBS Lett 2013; 587:1304-9. [PMID: 23474243 PMCID: PMC3740169 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Cluster 1 streptokinases (SK1) from Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) show substantially higher human plasminogen (hPg) activation activities and tighter hPg binding affinities than cluster 2b streptokinases (SK2b) in solution. The extent to which the different domains of SK are responsible for these differences is unknown. We exchanged each of the three known SK domains (α, β, and γ) between SK1 and SK2b and assessed the function of the resulting variants. Our results show that primary structural differences in the β-domains dictate these functional differences. This first report on the primary structure-functional relationship between naturally occurring SK1 and SK2b sheds new light on the mechanism of hPg activation by SK, a critical virulence determinant in this species of human pathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueling Zhang
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Zhong Liang
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Kristofor Glinton
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Victoria A. Ploplis
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Francis J. Castellino
- W.M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
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Keramati M, Roohvand F, Aslani MM, Motevalli F, khatami S, Memarnejadian A. Pitfalls in screening streptococci for retrieving superior streptokinase (SK) genes: no activity correlation for streptococcal culture supernatant and recombinant SK. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 40:151-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-012-1205-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Streptokinase (SK), the heterogeneous protein family secreted by some groups of β-hemolytic streptococci (βHS), is a plasminogen activator and well-known drug for thrombolytic therapy. Differences in plasminogen activation property of streptococcal culture supernatants (SCS) have been traditionally used to identify superior producer strains and SK genes (skc) for recombinant SK (rSK) production. However, the role of SK heterogeneity and whether SK activities in SCS correlate with that of their corresponding rSK is a matter of debate. To address these concerns, SCS of nine group C streptococci (GCS) screened among 252 βHS clinical isolates were compared for plasminogen activation using S-2251 chromogenic assay. The GCS (Streptococcus equisimilis) showing the highest (GCS-S87) and lowest (GCS-S131) activities were selected for PCR-based isolation of skc, cloning and rSK production in Escherichia coli. The 6×His-tagged rSK proteins were purified by NI–NTA chromatography, analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting and their activities were determined. While SCS of GCS-S87 and GCS-S131 showed different plasminogen activations (95 and 35 %, respectively) compared to that of the reference strain (GCS-9542), but interestingly rSK of all three strains showed close specific activities (1.33, 1.70, and 1.55 × 104 IU mg−1). Accordingly, SKS87 and SKS131 had more than 90 % sequence identity at the amino acids level compared to SK9542. Therefore, SK heterogeneity by itself may not contribute to the differences in plasminogen activation properties of SCS and evaluation of this activity in SCS might not be a proper assay for screening superior skc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malihe Keramati
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Microbiology Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Hepatitis and AIDS Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Farzin Roohvand
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Hepatitis and AIDS Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Mohammad Mehdi Aslani
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Microbiology Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Fatemeh Motevalli
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Hepatitis and AIDS Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Shohreh khatami
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Biochemistry Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
| | - Arash Memarnejadian
- grid.420169.8 0000000095622611 Hepatitis and AIDS Department Pasteur Institute of Iran Tehran Iran
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Cook SM, Skora A, Gillen CM, Walker MJ, McArthur JD. Streptokinase variants fromStreptococcus pyogenesisolates display altered plasminogen activation characteristics - implications for pathogenesis. Mol Microbiol 2012; 86:1052-62. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon M. Cook
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute; School of Biological Sciences; University of Wollongong; Wollongong; Australia
| | - Amanda Skora
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute; School of Biological Sciences; University of Wollongong; Wollongong; Australia
| | - Christine M. Gillen
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre; University of Queensland; Brisbane; Australia
| | - Mark J. Walker
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre; University of Queensland; Brisbane; Australia
| | - Jason D. McArthur
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute; School of Biological Sciences; University of Wollongong; Wollongong; Australia
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Zhang Y, Liang Z, Hsueh HT, Ploplis VA, Castellino FJ. Characterization of streptokinases from group A Streptococci reveals a strong functional relationship that supports the coinheritance of plasminogen-binding M protein and cluster 2b streptokinase. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:42093-103. [PMID: 23086939 PMCID: PMC3516755 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.417808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Group Astreptococcus (GAS) strains secrete the protein streptokinase (SK), which functions by activating host human plasminogen (hPg) to plasmin (hPm), thus providing a proteolytic framework for invasive GAS strains. The types of SK secreted by GAS have been grouped into two clusters (SK1 and SK2) and one subcluster (SK2a and SK2b). SKs from cluster 1 (SK1) and cluster 2b (SK2b) display significant evolutionary and functional differences, and attempts to relate these properties to GAS skin or pharynx tropism and invasiveness are of great interest. In this study, using four purified SKs from each cluster, new relationships between plasminogen-binding group A streptococcal M (PAM) protein and SK2b have been revealed. All SK1 proteins efficiently activated hPg, whereas all subclass SK2b proteins only weakly activated hPg in the absence of PAM. Surface plasmon resonance studies revealed that the lower affinity of SK2b to hPg served as the basis for the attenuated activation of hPg by SK2b. Binding of hPg to either human fibrinogen (hFg) or PAM greatly enhanced activation of hPg by SK2b but minimally influenced the already effective activation of hPg by SK1. Activation of hPg in the presence of GAS cells containing PAM demonstrated that PAM is the only factor on the surface of SK2b-expressing cells that enabled the direct activation of hPg by SK2b. As the binding of hPg to PAM is necessary for hPg activation by SK2b, this dependence explains the coinherant relationship between PAM and SK2b and the ability of these particular strains to generate the proteolytic activity that disrupts the innate barriers that limit invasiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueling Zhang
- W. M. Keck Center for Transgene Research and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA.
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Keramati M, Roohvand F, Eslaminejad Z, Mirzaie A, Nikbin VS, Aslani MM. PCR/RFLP-based allelic variants of streptokinase and their plasminogen activation potencies. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2012; 335:79-85. [PMID: 22812485 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02640.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR/RFLP)-based analysis of β-domain variable region of streptokinase genes (sk) has previously identified 14 sk alleles (sk1-sk14) in group A (GAS), C (GCS) and G (GGS) streptococci isolates from a few geographically distinct regions. However, the relation of sk allelic variants to their plasminogen activation potencies remained as a matter of debate. Herein, employing the same PCR/RFLP assay, we analysed sk allelic variants of GAS and GCS/GGS isolates from Iranian patients. In total, 21 sk allelic variants including 14 new alleles (sk14-sk28) were identified. Results implied the horizontal gene transfer of sk fragments between GAS and GCS/GGS strains and did not prove the specificity of particular sk alleles to GCS/GGS or GAS groups. Measurement of streptokinase (SK) activity in streptococcal culture supernatants by colorimetric assay (S2251 substrate) ranged from 9 to 182 IU mL(-1). Although some strains with the highest SK activity were detected in definite variants, no significant correlation between sk alleles and plasminogen activation was detected (P value > 0.05). Analysis of DNA sequences and restriction site mapping of selective sk variants with similar SK activity pointed to the inadequacy of the currently available PCR/RFLP method for differentiation of critical/silent nucleotides to precisely categorize sk alleles for their functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malihe Keramati
- Department of Hepatitis and AIDS, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract
Diseases caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A streptococcus, GAS) range from superficial infections such as pharyngitis and impetigo to potentially fatal rheumatic heart disease and invasive disease. Studies spanning emm-typing surveillance to population genomics are providing new insights into the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and biology of this organism. Such studies have demonstrated the differences that exist in the epidemiology of streptococcal disease between developing and developed nations. In developing nations, where streptococcal disease is endemic, the diversity of GAS emm-types circulating is much greater than that found in developed nations. An association between emm-type and disease, as observed in developed countries is also lacking. Intriguingly, comparative genetic studies suggest that emm-type is not always a good predictor of the evolutionary relatedness of geographically distant isolates. A view of GAS as a highly dynamic organism, in possession of a core set of virulence genes that contribute to host niche specialization and common pathogenic processes, augmented by accessory genes that change the relative virulence of specific lineages is emerging. Our inability to definitively identify genetic factors that contribute to specific disease outcome underscores the complex nature of streptococcal diseases.
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Virulence gene pool detected in bovine group C Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae isolates by use of a group A S. pyogenes virulence microarray. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49:2470-9. [PMID: 21525223 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00008-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A custom-designed microarray containing 220 virulence genes of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus [GAS]) was used to test group C Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae (GCS) field strains causing bovine mastitis and group C or group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (GCS/GGS) isolates from human infections, with the latter being used for comparative purposes, for the presence of virulence genes. All bovine and all human isolates carried a fraction of the 220 genes (23% and 39%, respectively). The virulence genes encoding streptolysin S, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the plasminogen-binding M-like protein PAM, and the collagen-like protein SclB were detected in the majority of both bovine and human isolates (94 to 100%). Virulence factors, usually carried by human beta-hemolytic streptococcal pathogens, such as streptokinase, laminin-binding protein, and the C5a peptidase precursor, were detected in all human isolates but not in bovine isolates. Additionally, GAS bacteriophage-associated virulence genes encoding superantigens, DNase, and/or streptodornase were detected in bovine isolates (72%) but not in the human isolates. Determinants located in non-bacteriophage-related mobile elements, such as the gene encoding R28, were detected in all bovine and human isolates. Several virulence genes, including genes of bacteriophage origin, were shown to be expressed by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Phylogenetic analysis of superantigen gene sequences revealed a high level (>98%) of identity among genes of bovine GCS, of the horse pathogen Streptococcus equi subsp. equi, and of the human pathogen GAS. Our findings indicate that alpha-hemolytic bovine GCS, an important mastitis pathogen and considered to be a nonhuman pathogen, carries important virulence factors responsible for virulence and pathogenesis in humans.
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Siemens N, Patenge N, Otto J, Fiedler T, Kreikemeyer B. Streptococcus pyogenes M49 plasminogen/plasmin binding facilitates keratinocyte invasion via integrin-integrin-linked kinase (ILK) pathways and protects from macrophage killing. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:21612-22. [PMID: 21521694 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.202671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The entry into epithelial cells and the prevention of primary immune responses are a prerequisite for a successful colonization and subsequent infection of the human host by Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococci, GAS). Here, we demonstrate that interaction of GAS with plasminogen promotes an integrin-mediated internalization of the bacteria into keratinocytes, which is independent from the serine protease activity of potentially generated plasmin. α(1)β(1)- and α(5)β(1)-integrins were identified as the major keratinocyte receptors involved in this process. Inhibition of integrin-linked kinase (ILK) expression by siRNA silencing or blocking of PI3K and Akt with specific inhibitors, reduced the GAS M49-plasminogen/plasmin-mediated invasion of keratinocytes. In addition, blocking of actin polymerization significantly reduced GAS internalization into keratinocytes. Altogether, these results provide a first model of plasminogen-mediated GAS invasion into keratinocytes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that plasminogen binding protects the bacteria against macrophage killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Siemens
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, Rostock University Hospital, Schillingallee 70, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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Ramirez-Peña E, Treviño J, Liu Z, Perez N, Sumby P. The group A Streptococcus small regulatory RNA FasX enhances streptokinase activity by increasing the stability of the ska mRNA transcript. Mol Microbiol 2010; 78:1332-47. [PMID: 21143309 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07427.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Small RNA molecules play key regulatory roles in many bacterial species. However, little mechanistic data exists for the action of small regulatory RNAs in the human pathogen group A Streptococcus (GAS). Here, we analysed the relationship between a putative GAS sRNA and production of the secreted virulence factor streptokinase (SKA). SKA promotes GAS dissemination by activating conversion of host plasminogen into the fibrin-degrading protease plasmin. Homologues of the putative sRNA-encoding gene fibronectin/fibrinogen-binding/haemolytic-activity/streptokinase-regulator-X (fasX) were identified in four different pyogenic streptococcal species. However, despite 79% fasX nucleotide identity, a fasX allele from the animal pathogen Streptococcus zooepidemicus failed to complement a GAS fasX mutant. Using a series of precisely constructed fasX alleles we discovered that FasX is a bona-fide sRNA that post-transcriptionally regulates SKA production in GAS. By base-pairing to the 5' end of ska mRNA, FasX enhances ska transcript stability, resulting in a ∼10-fold increase in SKA activity. Our data provide new insights into the mechanisms used by small regulatory RNAs to activate target mRNAs, and enhances our understanding of the regulation of a key GAS virulence factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esmeralda Ramirez-Peña
- Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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El-Safory NS, Fazary AE, Lee CK. Hyaluronidases, a group of glycosidases: Current and future perspectives. Carbohydr Polym 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.02.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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40
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Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-specific pathogen that is highly prevalent throughout the world. The vast majority of GAS infections lead to a mild disease involving the epithelial surfaces of either the throat or skin. The concept of distinct sets of 'throat' and 'skin' strains of GAS has long been conceived. From an ecological standpoint, the epithelium of the throat and skin are important because it is where the organism is most successful in reproducing and transmitting to new hosts. This article examines key features of the epidemiology, population biology and molecular pathogenesis that underlie the tissue site preferences for infection exhibited by GAS, with an emphasis on work from our laboratory on skin tropisms. Recombinational replacement with orthologous gene forms, following interspecies transfer, appears to be an important genetic step leading up to the exploitation of new niches by GAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debra E Bessen
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10573, USA, Tel.: +1 914 594 4193, Fax: +1 914 594 4176
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Olsen RJ, Musser JM. Molecular pathogenesis of necrotizing fasciitis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2010; 5:1-31. [PMID: 19737105 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-121808-102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Necrotizing fasciitis, also known as the flesh-eating disease, is a severe invasive infection associated with very high rates of human morbidity and mortality. It is most commonly caused by group A Streptococcus(GAS), a versatile human pathogen that causes diseases ranging in severity from uncomplicated pharyngitis (or strep throat) to life-threatening infections such as necrotizing fasciitis. Herein, we review recent discoveries bearing on the molecular pathogenesis of GAS necrotizing fasciitis. Importantly, the integration of new technologies and the development of human-relevant animal models have markedly expanded our understanding of the key pathogen-host interactions underlying GAS necrotizing fasciitis. For example, we now know that GAS organisms secrete a variety of proteases that disrupt host tissue and that these proteolytic enzymes are regulated by multiple transcriptional and posttranslational processes. This pathogenesis knowledge will be crucial to supporting downstream efforts that seek to develop novel vaccines and therapeutic agents for this serious human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall J Olsen
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, and Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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Aneja R, Datt M, Singh B, Kumar S, Sahni G. Identification of a new exosite involved in catalytic turnover by the streptokinase-plasmin activator complex during human plasminogen activation. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:32642-50. [PMID: 19801674 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.046573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
With the goal of identifying hitherto unknown surface exosites of streptokinase involved in substrate human plasminogen recognition and catalytic turnover, synthetic peptides encompassing the 170 loop (CQFTPLNPDDDFRPGLKDTKLLC) in the beta-domain were tested for selective inhibition of substrate human plasminogen activation by the streptokinase-plasmin activator complex. Although a disulfide-constrained peptide exhibited strong inhibition, a linear peptide with the same sequence, or a disulfide-constrained variant with a single lysine to alanine mutation showed significantly reduced capabilities of inhibition. Alanine-scanning mutagenesis of the 170 loop of the beta-domain of streptokinase was then performed to elucidate its importance in streptokinase-mediated plasminogen activation. Some of the 170 loop mutants showed a remarkable decline in k(cat) without any alteration in apparent substrate affinity (K(m)) as compared with wild-type streptokinase and identified the importance of Lys(180) as well as Pro(177) in the functioning of this loop. Remarkably, these mutants were able to generate amidolytic activity and non-proteolytic activation in "partner" plasminogen as wild-type streptokinase. Moreover, cofactor activities of the 170 loop mutants, pre-complexed with plasmin, against microplasminogen as the substrate showed a similar pattern of decline in k(cat) as that observed in the case of full-length plasminogen, with no concomitant change in K(m). These results strongly suggest that the 170 loop of the beta-domain of streptokinase is important for catalysis by the streptokinase-plasmin(ogen) activator complex, particularly in catalytic processing/turnover of substrate, although it does not seem to contribute significantly toward enzyme-substrate affinity per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachna Aneja
- Department of Molecular Biology and Protein Engineering, The Institute of Microbial Technology (CSIR), Sector 39-A, Chandigarh 160036, India
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Nobbs AH, Lamont RJ, Jenkinson HF. Streptococcus adherence and colonization. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2009; 73:407-50, Table of Contents. [PMID: 19721085 PMCID: PMC2738137 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00014-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococci readily colonize mucosal tissues in the nasopharynx; the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts; and the skin. Each ecological niche presents a series of challenges to successful colonization with which streptococci have to contend. Some species exist in equilibrium with their host, neither stimulating nor submitting to immune defenses mounted against them. Most are either opportunistic or true pathogens responsible for diseases such as pharyngitis, tooth decay, necrotizing fasciitis, infective endocarditis, and meningitis. Part of the success of streptococci as colonizers is attributable to the spectrum of proteins expressed on their surfaces. Adhesins enable interactions with salivary, serum, and extracellular matrix components; host cells; and other microbes. This is the essential first step to colonization, the development of complex communities, and possible invasion of host tissues. The majority of streptococcal adhesins are anchored to the cell wall via a C-terminal LPxTz motif. Other proteins may be surface anchored through N-terminal lipid modifications, while the mechanism of cell wall associations for others remains unclear. Collectively, these surface-bound proteins provide Streptococcus species with a "coat of many colors," enabling multiple intimate contacts and interplays between the bacterial cell and the host. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated direct roles for many streptococcal adhesins as colonization or virulence factors, making them attractive targets for therapeutic and preventive strategies against streptococcal infections. There is, therefore, much focus on applying increasingly advanced molecular techniques to determine the precise structures and functions of these proteins, and their regulatory pathways, so that more targeted approaches can be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela H Nobbs
- Oral Microbiology Unit, Department of Oral and Dental Science, University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 2LY, United Kingdom
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Cork AJ, Jergic S, Hammerschmidt S, Kobe B, Pancholi V, Benesch JLP, Robinson CV, Dixon NE, Aquilina JA, Walker MJ. Defining the structural basis of human plasminogen binding by streptococcal surface enolase. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:17129-17137. [PMID: 19363026 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.004317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The flesh-eating bacterium group A Streptococcus (GAS) binds and activates human plasminogen, promoting invasive disease. Streptococcal surface enolase (SEN), a glycolytic pathway enzyme, is an identified plasminogen receptor of GAS. Here we used mass spectrometry (MS) to confirm that GAS SEN is octameric, thereby validating in silico modeling based on the crystal structure of Streptococcus pneumoniae alpha-enolase. Site-directed mutagenesis of surface-located lysine residues (SEN(K252 + 255A), SEN(K304A), SEN(K334A), SEN(K344E), SEN(K435L), and SEN(Delta434-435)) was used to examine their roles in maintaining structural integrity, enzymatic function, and plasminogen binding. Structural integrity of the GAS SEN octamer was retained for all mutants except SEN(K344E), as determined by circular dichroism spectroscopy and MS. However, ion mobility MS revealed distinct differences in the stability of several mutant octamers in comparison with wild type. Enzymatic analysis indicated that SEN(K344E) had lost alpha-enolase activity, which was also reduced in SEN(K334A) and SEN(Delta434-435). Surface plasmon resonance demonstrated that the capacity to bind human plasminogen was abolished in SEN(K252 + 255A), SEN(K435L), and SEN(Delta434-435). The lysine residues at positions 252, 255, 434, and 435 therefore play a concerted role in plasminogen acquisition. This study demonstrates the ability of combining in silico structural modeling with ion mobility-MS validation for undertaking functional studies on complex protein structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda J Cork
- From the School of Biological Sciences, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Slobodan Jergic
- School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Sven Hammerschmidt
- Department of Genetics of Microorganisms, Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University of Greifswald, Greifswald D-17487, Germany
| | - Bostjan Kobe
- School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences and Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Vijay Pancholi
- Department of Pathology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
| | - Justin L P Benesch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, United Kingdom
| | - Carol V Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas E Dixon
- School of Chemistry, University of Wollongong, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia
| | - J Andrew Aquilina
- From the School of Biological Sciences, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Mark J Walker
- From the School of Biological Sciences, Wollongong NSW 2522, Australia.
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Bessen DE. Population biology of the human restricted pathogen, Streptococcus pyogenes. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 9:581-93. [PMID: 19460325 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes, also referred to as beta-hemolytic group A streptococci, are strictly human pathogens with a global distribution and high prevalence of infection. The organisms are characterized by high levels of genetic recombination, extensive strain diversity, and a narrow habitat. This review highlights many key features of the population genetics and molecular epidemiology of this biologically diverse bacterial species, with special emphasis on ecological subdivisions and tissue-specific infections, strain diversity and population dynamics in communities, selection pressures arising from the specific host immune response and antibiotic exposure, and within-host selection during the course of invasive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debra E Bessen
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA.
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Hollands A, Aziz RK, Kansal R, Kotb M, Nizet V, Walker MJ. A naturally occurring mutation in ropB suppresses SpeB expression and reduces M1T1 group A streptococcal systemic virulence. PLoS One 2008; 3:e4102. [PMID: 19116661 PMCID: PMC2605554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Accepted: 11/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies of group A streptococcus (GAS) have noted an inverse relationship between SpeB expression and invasive disease. However, the role of SpeB in the course of infection is still unclear. In this study we utilize a SpeB-negative M1T1 clinical isolate, 5628, with a naturally occurring mutation in the gene encoding the regulator RopB, to elucidate the role of RopB and SpeB in systemic virulence. Allelic exchange mutagenesis was used to replace the mutated ropB allele in 5628 with the intact allele from the well characterized isolate 5448. The inverse allelic exchange was also performed to replace the intact ropB in 5448 with the mutated allele from 5628. An intact ropB was found to be essential for SpeB expression. While the ropB mutation was shown to have no effect on hemolysis of RBC's, extracellular DNase activity or survival in the presence of neutrophils, strains with the mutated ropB allele were less virulent in murine systemic models of infection. An isogenic SpeB knockout strain containing an intact RopB showed similarly reduced virulence. Microarray analysis found genes of the SpeB operon to be the primary target of RopB regulation. These data show that an intact RopB and efficient SpeB production are necessary for systemic infection with GAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Hollands
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
- The Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, The University of Cincinnati, College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ramy K. Aziz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Rita Kansal
- The VA Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Malak Kotb
- The VA Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- The Department of Molecular Genetics, Biochemistry and Microbiology, The University of Cincinnati, College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Walker
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Mereghetti L, Sitkiewicz I, Green NM, Musser JM. Extensive adaptive changes occur in the transcriptome of Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus) in response to incubation with human blood. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3143. [PMID: 18769548 PMCID: PMC2519835 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Accepted: 08/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To enhance understanding of how Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus, GBS) adapts during invasive infection, we performed a whole-genome transcriptome analysis after incubation with whole human blood. Global changes occurred in the GBS transcriptome rapidly in response to blood contact following shift from growth in a rich laboratory medium. Most (83%) of the significantly altered transcripts were down-regulated after 30 minutes of incubation in blood, and all functional categories of genes were abundantly represented. We observed complex dynamic changes in the expression of transcriptional regulators and stress response genes that allow GBS to rapidly adapt to blood. The transcripts of relatively few proven virulence genes were up-regulated during the first 90 minutes. However, a key discovery was that genes encoding proteins involved in interaction with the host coagulation/fibrinolysis system and bacterial-host interactions were rapidly up-regulated. Extensive transcript changes also occurred for genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including multi-functional proteins and regulators putatively involved in pathogenesis. Finally, we discovered that an incubation temperature closer to that occurring in patients with severe infection and high fever (40°C) induced additional differences in the GBS transcriptome relative to normal body temperature (37°C). Taken together, the data provide extensive new information about transcriptional adaptation of GBS exposed to human blood, a crucial step during GBS pathogenesis in invasive diseases, and identify many new leads for molecular pathogenesis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mereghetti
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Université François-Rabelais, Faculté de Médecine, EA3854 “Bactéries et risque materno-foetal”, et Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Tours, France
| | - Izabela Sitkiewicz
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Nicole M. Green
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - James M. Musser
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Beres SB, Sesso R, Pinto SWL, Hoe NP, Porcella SF, DeLeo FR, Musser JM. Genome sequence of a Lancefield group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus strain causing epidemic nephritis: new information about an old disease. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3026. [PMID: 18716664 PMCID: PMC2516327 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/29/2008] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Outbreaks of disease attributable to human error or natural causes can provide unique opportunities to gain new information about host-pathogen interactions and new leads for pathogenesis research. Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN), a sequela of infection with pathogenic streptococci, is a common cause of preventable kidney disease worldwide. Although PSGN usually occurs after infection with group A streptococci, organisms of Lancefield group C and G also can be responsible. Despite decades of study, the molecular pathogenesis of PSGN is poorly understood. As a first step toward gaining new information about PSGN pathogenesis, we sequenced the genome of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus strain MGCS10565, a group C organism that caused a very large and unusually severe epidemic of nephritis in Brazil. The genome is a circular chromosome of 2,024,171 bp. The genome shares extensive gene content, including many virulence factors, with genetically related group A streptococci, but unexpectedly lacks prophages. The genome contains many apparently foreign genes interspersed around the chromosome, consistent with the presence of a full array of genes required for natural competence. An inordinately large family of genes encodes secreted extracellular collagen-like proteins with multiple integrin-binding motifs. The absence of a gene related to speB rules out the long-held belief that streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B or antibodies reacting with it singularly cause PSGN. Many proteins previously implicated in GAS PSGN, such as streptokinase, are either highly divergent in strain MGCS10565 or are not more closely related between these species than to orthologs present in other streptococci that do not commonly cause PSGN. Our analysis provides a comparative genomics framework for renewed appraisal of molecular events underlying APSGN pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B. Beres
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute and Department of Pathology, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ricardo Sesso
- Division of Nephrology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Nancy P. Hoe
- Division of Occupational Health and Safety, Office of Research Services, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Stephen F. Porcella
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Frank R. DeLeo
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - James M. Musser
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute and Department of Pathology, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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