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Mohammad A, Ruegsegger GN, Olver TD, MacPherson REK. Gestational physical activity alters offspring brain APP processing in an age-specific manner. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2024; 49:1507-1516. [PMID: 39038365 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2024-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
Maternal exercise is beneficial for offspring brain development. Amyloid precursor protein (APP) influences neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Cleavage products of APP are implicated in the proliferation of neural progenitor cells and neuronal network development. Our study aimed to investigate differences in APP processing in active or sedentary offspring of dams who were exposed to voluntary wheel running with and without a western diet throughout gestation. Female Wistar rats (7-8 weeks old) were fed a normal chow or western diet and randomized into voluntary wheel run or sedentary conditions. Dams returned to sedentary conditions post-parturition. The pups were weaned at 6 weeks after which point half of the samples were collected, while the rest of the pups remained on a normal diet, separated into sedentary or voluntary wheel run groups, and collected 12 weeks later. In utero exposure to maternal exercise was associated with higher neuronal nuclear protein, higher soluble APPα and lower soluble APPβ in offspring prefrontal cortex tissue at 6, but not 18 weeks of age. Neuronal nuclear protein is exclusive to mature neurons implying that offspring of mothers who exercised could have more neuron maturation potentially influenced by the higher APPα content at this early developmental stage. The voluntary wheel run offspring groups had a higher mature/pro brain derived neurotrophic factor ratio compared to the sedentary counterparts. The maternal effects were isolated to the juvenile 6-week-old pups, while the differences in the adult offspring were caused by their own exercise status.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Mohammad
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada
| | - G N Ruegsegger
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Colombia, MO, US
| | - T D Olver
- Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - R E K MacPherson
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada
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Gonzalez K, Merlin AC, Roye E, Ju B, Lee Y, Chicco AJ, Chung E. Voluntary Wheel Running Reduces Cardiometabolic Risks in Female Offspring Exposed to Lifelong High-Fat, High-Sucrose Diet. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:1378-1389. [PMID: 38595204 PMCID: PMC11250925 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Maternal and postnatal overnutrition has been linked to an increased risk of cardiometabolic diseases in offspring. This study investigated the impact of adult-onset voluntary wheel running to counteract cardiometabolic risks in female offspring exposed to a life-long high-fat, high-sucrose (HFHS) diet. METHODS Dams were fed either an HFHS or a low-fat, low-sucrose (LFLS) diet starting from 8 wk before pregnancy and continuing throughout gestation and lactation. Offspring followed their mothers' diets. At 15 wk of age, they were divided into sedentary (Sed) or voluntary wheel running (Ex) groups, resulting in four groups: LFLS/Sed ( n = 10), LFLS/Ex ( n = 5), HFHS/Sed ( n = 6), HFHS/Ex ( n = 5). Cardiac function was assessed at 25 wk, with tissue collection at 26 wk for mitochondrial respiratory function and protein analysis. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. RESULTS Although maternal HFHS diet did not affect the offspring's body weight at weaning, continuous HFHS feeding postweaning resulted in increased body weight and adiposity, irrespective of the exercise regimen. HFHS/Sed offspring showed increased left ventricular wall thickness and elevated expression of enzymes involved in fatty acid transport (CD36, FABP3), lipogenesis (DGAT), glucose transport (GLUT4), oxidative stress (protein carbonyls, nitrotyrosine), and early senescence markers (p16, p21). Their cardiac mitochondria displayed lower oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) efficiency and reduced expression of OXPHOS complexes and fatty acid metabolism enzymes (ACSL5, CPT1B). However, HFHS/Ex offspring mitigated these effects, aligning more with LFLS/Sed offspring. CONCLUSIONS Adult-onset voluntary wheel running effectively counteracts the detrimental cardiac effects of a lifelong HFHS diet, improving mitochondrial efficiency, reducing oxidative stress, and preventing early senescence. This underscores the significant role of physical activity in mitigating diet-induced cardiometabolic risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kassandra Gonzalez
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
| | - Andrea Chiñas Merlin
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
- Biomedical Engineering, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey, MEXICO
| | - Erin Roye
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
| | - Beomsoo Ju
- Molecular and Cellular Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Movement Sciences and Health, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL
| | - Youngil Lee
- Molecular and Cellular Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Movement Sciences and Health, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL
| | - Adam J. Chicco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
| | - Eunhee Chung
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX
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da Silva Rodrigues F, Jantsch J, de Farias Fraga G, Luiza de Camargo Milczarski V, Silva Dias V, Scheid C, de Oliveira Merib J, Giovernardi M, Padilha Guedes R. Cannabidiol improves maternal obesity-induced behavioral, neuroinflammatory and neurochemical dysfunctions in the juvenile offspring. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 119:301-316. [PMID: 38608740 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2024.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder in the offspring. While numerous studies focus on preventive measures targeting the mothers, only a limited number provide practical approaches for addressing the damages once they are already established. We have recently demonstrated the interplay between maternal obesity and treatment with cannabidiol (CBD) on hypothalamic inflammation and metabolic disturbances, however, little is known about this relationship on behavioral manifestations and neurochemical imbalances in other brain regions. Therefore, here we tested whether CBD treatment could mitigate anxiety-like and social behavioral alterations, as well as neurochemical disruptions in both male and female offspring of obese dams. Female Wistar rats were fed a cafeteria diet for 12 weeks prior to mating, and during gestation and lactation. Offspring received CBD (50 mg/kg) from weaning for 3 weeks. Behavioral tests assessed anxiety-like manifestations and social behavior, while neuroinflammatory and neurochemical markers were evaluated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus. CBD treatment attenuated maternal obesity-induced anxiety-like and social behavioral alterations, followed by rescuing effects on imbalanced neurotransmitter and endocannabinoid concentrations and altered expression of glial markers, CB1, oxytocin and dopamine receptors, with important differences between sexes. Overall, the findings of this study provide insight into the signaling pathways for the therapeutic benefits of CBD on neuroinflammation and neurochemical imbalances caused by perinatal maternal obesity in the PFC and the hippocampus, which translates into the behavioral manifestations, highlighting the sexual dimorphism encompassing both the transgenerational effect of obesity and the endocannabinoid system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda da Silva Rodrigues
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Jeferson Jantsch
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Gabriel de Farias Fraga
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Vitória Luiza de Camargo Milczarski
- Undergraduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Victor Silva Dias
- Undergraduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Camila Scheid
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Josias de Oliveira Merib
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Marcia Giovernardi
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, 90050-170 Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Renata Padilha Guedes
- Graduate Program in Biosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), 90050-170, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, 90050-170 Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
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Kopczyńska J, Kowalczyk M. The potential of short-chain fatty acid epigenetic regulation in chronic low-grade inflammation and obesity. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1380476. [PMID: 38605957 PMCID: PMC11008232 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1380476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Obesity and chronic low-grade inflammation, often occurring together, significantly contribute to severe metabolic and inflammatory conditions like type 2 diabetes (T2D), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer. A key player is elevated levels of gut dysbiosis-associated lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which disrupts metabolic and immune signaling leading to metabolic endotoxemia, while short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) beneficially regulate these processes during homeostasis. SCFAs not only safeguard the gut barrier but also exert metabolic and immunomodulatory effects via G protein-coupled receptor binding and epigenetic regulation. SCFAs are emerging as potential agents to counteract dysbiosis-induced epigenetic changes, specifically targeting metabolic and inflammatory genes through DNA methylation, histone acetylation, microRNAs (miRNAs), and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). To assess whether SCFAs can effectively interrupt the detrimental cascade of obesity and inflammation, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current evidence for their clinical application. The review emphasizes factors influencing SCFA production, the intricate connections between metabolism, the immune system, and the gut microbiome, and the epigenetic mechanisms regulated by SCFAs that impact metabolism and the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kopczyńska
- Laboratory of Lactic Acid Bacteria Biotechnology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Lu X, Xue J, Lai Y, Tang X. Heterogeneity of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons: From molecular classifications, electrophysiological properties to functional connectivity. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23465. [PMID: 38315491 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202302031r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
The mesencephalic dopamine (DA) system is composed of neuronal subtypes that are molecularly and functionally distinct, are responsible for specific behaviors, and are closely associated with numerous brain disorders. Existing research has made significant advances in identifying the heterogeneity of mesencephalic DA neurons, which is necessary for understanding their diverse physiological functions and disease susceptibility. Moreover, there is a conflict regarding the electrophysiological properties of the distinct subsets of midbrain DA neurons. This review aimed to elucidate recent developments in the heterogeneity of midbrain DA neurons, including subpopulation categorization, electrophysiological characteristics, and functional connectivity to provide new strategies for accurately identifying distinct subtypes of midbrain DA neurons and investigating the underlying mechanisms of these neurons in various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaying Lu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Jinhua Xue
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Yudong Lai
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Xiaolu Tang
- The First Clinical Medical College, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
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Martins MG, Silver Z, Ayoub K, Hyland L, Woodside B, Kiss ACI, Abizaid A. Maternal glucose intolerance during pregnancy affects offspring POMC expression and results in adult metabolic alterations in a sex-dependent manner. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1189207. [PMID: 37396180 PMCID: PMC10311085 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1189207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Gestational diabetes (GDM) is associated with negative outcomes in mothers and their offspring, including greater risks of macrosomia at birth and the development of metabolic disorders. While these outcomes are well-established, the mechanisms by which this increased metabolic vulnerability is conferred on the offspring are comparatively lacking. One proposed mechanism is that maternal glycemic dysregulation alters the development of the hypothalamic regions related to metabolism and energy balance. Methods To investigate this possibility, in this study, we first examined the effects of STZ-induced maternal glucose intolerance on the offspring on pregnancy day (PD) 19, and, in a second experiment, in early adulthood (postnatal day (PND) 60). Whether effects would be influenced by sex, or exposure of offspring to a high-fat diet was also investigated. The impact of maternal STZ treatment on POMC neuron number in the ARC of offspring at both time points was also examined. Results As expected, STZ administration on PD 7 decreased maternal glucose tolerance, and increased risk for macrosomia, and loss of pups at birth. Offspring of STZ-treated mothers were also more vulnerable to developing metabolic impairments in adulthood. These were accompanied by sex-specific effects of maternal STZ treatment in the offspring, including fewer POMC neurons in the ARC of female but not male infants in late pregnancy and a higher number of POMC neurons in the ARC of both male and female adult offspring of STZ-treated dams, which was exacerbated in females exposed to a high-fat diet after weaning. Discussion This work suggests that maternal hyperglycemia induced by STZ treatment, in combination with early-life exposure to an obesogenic diet, leads to adult metabolic alterations that correlate with the increased hypothalamic expression of POMC, showing that maternal glycemic dysregulation can impact the development of hypothalamic circuits regulating energy state with a stronger impact on female offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Galleazzo Martins
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences of the University of São Paulo (IB/USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Zachary Silver
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Kiara Ayoub
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Lindsay Hyland
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Barbara Woodside
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ana Carolina Inhasz Kiss
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biosciences of the University of São Paulo (IB/USP), São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (Unesp), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alfonso Abizaid
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Tarui T, Rasool A, O'Tierney-Ginn P. How the placenta-brain lipid axis impacts the nutritional origin of child neurodevelopmental disorders: Focus on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Exp Neurol 2021; 347:113910. [PMID: 34742689 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Dietary fish is a rich source of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, and as such, is believed to have played an important role in the evolution of the human brain and its advanced cognitive function. The long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly the n-3 docosahexanoic acid (DHA), are critical for proper neurological development and function. Both low plasma DHA and obesity in pregnancy are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in childhood, and n-3 supplementation has been shown to improve symptoms, as reviewed herein. The mechanisms underlying the connection between maternal obesity, n-3 fatty acid levels and offspring's neurological outcomes are poorly understood, but we review the evidence for a mediating role of the placenta in this relationship. Despite promising data that n-3 fatty acid supplementation mitigates the effect of maternal obesity on placental lipid metabolism, few clinical trials or animal studies have considered the neurological outcomes of offspring of mothers with obesity supplemented with n-3 FA in pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomo Tarui
- Mother Infant Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Aisha Rasool
- Mother Infant Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Perrie O'Tierney-Ginn
- Mother Infant Research Institute, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States of America.
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Kelty TJ, Brown JD, Kerr NR, Roberts MD, Childs TE, Cabrera OH, Manzella FM, Miller DK, Taylor GT, Booth FW. RNA-sequencing and behavioral testing reveals inherited physical inactivity co-selects for anxiogenic behavior without altering depressive-like behavior in Wistar rats. Neurosci Lett 2021; 753:135854. [PMID: 33785378 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Physical inactivity is positively associated with anxiety and depression. Considering physical inactivity, anxiety, and depression each have a genetic basis for inheritance, our lab used artificial selectively bred low-voluntary running (LVR) and wild type (WT) female Wistar rats to test if physical inactivity genes selected over multiple generations would lead to an anxiety or depressive-like phenotype. We performed next generation RNA sequencing and immunoblotting on the dentate gyrus to reveal key biological functions from heritable physical inactivity. LVR rats did not display depressive-like behavior. However, LVR rats did display anxiogenic behavior with gene networks associated with reduced neuronal development, proliferation, and function compared to WT counterparts. Additionally, immunoblotting revealed LVR deficits in neuronal development and function. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show that by selectively breeding for physical inactivity genes, anxiety-like genes were co-selected. The study also reveals molecular insights to the genetic influences that physical inactivity has on anxiety-like behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor J Kelty
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
| | - Jacob D Brown
- Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Nathan R Kerr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Michael D Roberts
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Tom E Childs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Omar H Cabrera
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Francesca M Manzella
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Dennis K Miller
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - George T Taylor
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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Grigsby KB, Childs TE, Booth FW. The role of nucleus accumbens CREB attenuation in rescuing low voluntary running behavior in female rats. J Neurosci Res 2020; 98:2302-2316. [PMID: 32725625 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Given the integral role of nucleus accumbens (NAc) cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) activity in motivational processes, the goal of the current study was to determine whether blunting chronic NAc CREB activity could rescue the low physical activity motivation of female, low voluntary running (LVR) rats. NAc CREB phosphorylation is elevated in these rats, a state previously attributed to deficits in reward valuation. It was recently shown that overexpression of the upstream CREB inhibitor, protein kinase inhibitor alpha (PKIα), increased LVR nightly running by ~threefold. Therefore, the current study addresses the extent to which NAc CREB attenuation influences female LVR and wild-type (WT) wheel-running behavior. Inducible reductions in NAc neuronal activity using Gi-coupled hM4Di DREADDs increased running behavior in LVR, but not in WT, rats. Similarly, site-directed pharmacological inhibition of NAc CREB activity significantly increased LVR nightly running distance and time by ~twofold, with no effect in WT rats. Finally, environmentally enriched LVR rats exhibit higher levels of running compared to socially isolated rats in what appeared to be a CREB-related manner. Considering the positive outcomes of upstream CREB modulation and environmental enrichment on LVR behavior, we believe that blunting NAc CREB activity has the neuromolecular potential to partially reverse low physical activity motivation, as exemplified by the LVR model. The positive physical activity outcome of early life enrichment adds translatable value to human childhood enrichment and highlights its importance on motivational processes later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolter B Grigsby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Thomas E Childs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
- Dalton Cardiovascular Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
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Ferrari N, Schmitz L, Schmidt N, Mahabir E, Van de Vondel P, Merz WM, Lehmacher W, Stock S, Brockmeier K, Ensenauer R, Fehm T, Joisten C. A lifestyle intervention during pregnancy to reduce obesity in early childhood: the study protocol of ADEBAR - a randomized controlled trial. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2020; 12:55. [PMID: 32944252 PMCID: PMC7487987 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-020-00198-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of obesity in childhood is increasing worldwide and may be affected by genetic factors and the lifestyle (exercise, nutrition behavior) of expectant parents. Lifestyle factors affect adipokines, namely leptin, resistin, and adiponectin as well as cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which are involved in the regulation of maternal metabolic homeostasis, glucose metabolism, and the development of insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, gestational diabetes mellitus, and hypertension. However, studies focusing on the effect of exercise or a combination of parental exercise and nutrition on the above-mentioned markers in newborns (venous cord blood) and especially on the long-term development of infants' weight gain are lacking. The study will investigate the effects of a multimodal intervention (regular exercise, diet) on parental and childhood adipocytokines (leptin, resistin, adiponectin, TNF-α, IL-6, BDNF). The effect of a lifestyle-related change in "fetal environmental conditions" on the long-term weight development of the child up to the age of two will also be assessed. METHODS/DESIGN A randomized multi-center controlled trial will be conducted in Germany, comparing supervised aerobic and resistance training 2x/week (13th to 36th weeks of gestation) and nutritional counseling (6th to 36th weeks of gestation) during pregnancy with usual care. Thirty women (pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index ≥25 kg/m2, 6th-10th week of gestation) will be included in each group. Maternal anthropometric and physical measurements as well as blood sampling will occur at the 6th-10th, 13th-14th, 21st-24th, and 36th week of gestation, at delivery as well as 8 weeks and 24 months postpartum. Neonatal measurements and umbilical blood sampling will be performed at birth. Maternal and infants' weight development will be assessed every 6 months till 24 months postpartum. A difference in childhood BMI of 1 kg/m2 at the age of two years between both groups will be assumed. A power size of 80% using a significance level of 0.05 and an effect size of 1.0 is presumed. DISCUSSION A better understanding of how lifestyle-related changes in the fetal environment might influence infants' outcome after two years of life could have a profound impact on the prevention and development of infants' obesity. TRIAL REGISTRATION The trial is registered at the German Clinical Trial Register (DRKS00007702); Registered on 10th of August 2016; retrospectively registered https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00007702.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Ferrari
- Cologne Centre for Prevention in Childhood and Youth/ Heart Centre Cologne, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
- Department for physical activity in public health, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
| | - Laura Schmitz
- Department for physical activity in public health, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
| | - Nikola Schmidt
- Department for physical activity in public health, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
| | - Esther Mahabir
- Comparative Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, University of Cologne, Robert-Koch-Str. 21, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Cologne Center for Musculoskeletal Biomechanics, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Waltraut M. Merz
- Department of Obstetrics and Prenatal Medicine, University Bonn Medical School, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Walter Lehmacher
- Department of Biometry (IMSIE), Faculty of medicine, University of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Stephanie Stock
- Cologne Institute for Health Economics and Clinical Epidemiology, The University Hospital of Cologne, Gleueler Strasse 176 - 178/II, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Konrad Brockmeier
- Cologne Centre for Prevention in Childhood and Youth/ Heart Centre Cologne, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology, Heart Centre Cologne, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Regina Ensenauer
- Department of General Pediatrics, Neonatology and Pediatric Cardiology, University Children’s Hospital, University of Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Child Nutrition, Max Rubner-Institut, Haid-und-Neu-Str. 9, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Tanja Fehm
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Düsseldorf, University of Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christine Joisten
- Cologne Centre for Prevention in Childhood and Youth/ Heart Centre Cologne, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
- Department for physical activity in public health, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
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Feistauer V, Fisch J, da Silva Oliveira CK, Giovenardi M, Almeida S. Restriction and hyperlipidic diets during pregnancy, lactation and adult life modified the expression of dopaminergic system related genes both in female mice and their adult offspring. Brain Res Bull 2020; 162:245-252. [PMID: 32619693 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The neurocircuitry underlying hunger, satiety, motivation to eat and food reward is complex, however a lot of mechanisms are still unknown. Two main cerebral areas are responsible for controlling feeding through hunger and food reward: the hypothalamus (HPT) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA), respectively. The dopaminergic system modulates both these areas and is essential to control food ingestion. Therefore, we aim to evaluate the effects of restrictive and hyperlipidic diets during pregnancy, lactation and during adult life of the offspring, on the expression of dopaminergic system genes in VTA and HPT of mice dams and their adult male offspring. We also measured diets' effect in locomotor activity in the open field (OF) test. Female mice were divided into control (CONT), restriction (RD) and hyperlipidic (HD) dietary groups, and mated with isogenic male mice. On the 9th postpartum day (PPD), dams were tested in the OF, and on the 22nd PPD cerebral areas were collected. After weaning, the offspring also were divided into one of three diet groups, independently of the diets provided to their dams. In the 80th PPD, the offspring was tested in the OF, and at 100th PPD, VTA and HPT were collected. Gene expression was analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction. The correlation between gene expression and locomotor activity was also assessed. In dams' VTA, both diets upregulated the expression of Th, Slc6a3/Dat1, Drd1 and Drd2 genes. In opposition, in the offspring the maternal diet was associated with a reduction in Th and Ddc gene expression. In the HPT, mice dams that received restriction or hyperlipidic diets had increased Th mRNA levels, but reduced the expression of Drd4 gene. The offspring diet had no effect on the expression of the studied genes in their adult lives. Both diets increased mice dam's locomotion in the OF, however none of them altered the offspring locomotor activity. We detected a positive correlation between the duration of total locomotion in the OF and Slc6a3/Dat1 gene expression in VTA of mice dams. In the HPT, a negative correlation of locomotion and Drd4 mRNA levels, and a positive correlation with Th gene expression was observed. Our results show that restriction and hyperlipidic diets alter mice dams' locomotor activity in the OF and modify the expression of dopaminergic system genes in VTA and HPT of mice dams and in VTA of the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Feistauer
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil.
| | - Joana Fisch
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil.
| | - Carolina Kalkmann da Silva Oliveira
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil.
| | - Márcia Giovenardi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil.
| | - Silvana Almeida
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biociências, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Rua Sarmento Leite, 245 - Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90050-170, Brazil.
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12
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Shook LL, Kislal S, Edlow AG. Fetal brain and placental programming in maternal obesity: A review of human and animal model studies. Prenat Diagn 2020; 40:1126-1137. [PMID: 32362000 DOI: 10.1002/pd.5724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Both human epidemiologic and animal model studies demonstrate that prenatal and lactational exposure to maternal obesity and high-fat diet are associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in offspring. Neurodevelopmental outcomes described in offspring of obese women include cognitive impairment, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and depression, disordered eating, and propensity for reward-driven behavior, among others. This review synthesizes human and animal data linking maternal obesity and high-fat diet consumption to abnormal fetal brain development, and neurodevelopmental and psychiatric morbidity in offspring. It highlights key mechanisms by which maternal obesity and maternal diet impact fetal and offspring development, and sex differences in offspring programming. In addition, we review placental effects of maternal obesity, and the role the placenta might play as an indicator vs mediator of fetal programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia L Shook
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sezen Kislal
- Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrea G Edlow
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Vincent Center for Reproductive Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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13
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Shay DA, Welly RJ, Givan SA, Bivens N, Kanaley J, Marshall BL, Lubahn DB, Rosenfeld CS, Vieira-Potter VJ. Changes in nucleus accumbens gene expression accompany sex-specific suppression of spontaneous physical activity in aromatase knockout mice. Horm Behav 2020; 121:104719. [PMID: 32081742 PMCID: PMC7387966 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase catalyzes conversion of testosterone to estradiol and is expressed in a variety of tissues, including the brain. Suppression of aromatase adversely affects metabolism and physical activity behavior, but mechanisms remain uncertain. The hypothesis tested herein was that whole body aromatase deletion would cause gene expression changes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a brain regulating motivated behaviors such as physical activity, which is suppressed with loss of estradiol. Metabolic and behavioral assessments were performed in male and female wild-type (WT) and aromatase knockout (ArKO) mice. NAc-specific differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified with RNAseq, and associations between the measured phenotypic traits were determined. Female ArKO mice had greater percent body fat, reduced spontaneous physical activity (SPA), consumed less energy, and had lower relative resting energy expenditure (REE) than WT females. Such differences were not observed in ArKO males. However, in both sexes, a top DEG was Pts, a gene encoding an enzyme necessary for catecholamine (e.g., dopamine) biosynthesis. In comparing male and female WT mice, top DEGs were related to sexual development/fertility, immune regulation, obesity, dopamine signaling, and circadian regulation. SPA correlated strongly with Per3, a gene regulating circadian function, thermoregulation, and metabolism (r = -0.64, P = .002), which also correlated with adiposity (r = 0.54, P = .01). In conclusion, aromatase ablation leads to gene expression changes in NAc, which may in turn result in reduced SPA and related metabolic abnormalities. These findings may have significance to post-menopausal women and those treated with an aromatase inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusti A Shay
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Rebecca J Welly
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Scott A Givan
- Informatics Research Core Facility, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Nathan Bivens
- DNA Core Facility, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Jill Kanaley
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Brittney L Marshall
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA; Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Dennis B Lubahn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Department of Child Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Cheryl S Rosenfeld
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA; Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA; Thompson Center for Autism and Neurobehavioral Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA; MU Informatics Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA
| | - Victoria J Vieira-Potter
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia 65211, MO, USA.
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14
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Menting MD, van de Beek C, Mintjens S, Wever KE, Korosi A, Ozanne SE, Limpens J, Roseboom TJ, Hooijmans C, Painter RC. The link between maternal obesity and offspring neurobehavior: A systematic review of animal experiments. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 98:107-121. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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15
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Tiffon C. The Impact of Nutrition and Environmental Epigenetics on Human Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E3425. [PMID: 30388784 PMCID: PMC6275017 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental epigenetics describes how environmental factors affect cellular epigenetics and, hence, human health. Epigenetic marks alter the spatial conformation of chromatin to regulate gene expression. Environmental factors with epigenetic effects include behaviors, nutrition, and chemicals and industrial pollutants. Epigenetic mechanisms are also implicated during development in utero and at the cellular level, so environmental exposures may harm the fetus by impairing the epigenome of the developing organism to modify disease risk later in life. By contrast, bioactive food components may trigger protective epigenetic modifications throughout life, with early life nutrition being particularly important. Beyond their genetics, the overall health status of an individual may be regarded as an integration of many environmental signals starting at gestation and acting through epigenetic modifications. This review explores how the environment affects the epigenome in health and disease, with a particular focus on cancer. Understanding the molecular effects of behavior, nutrients, and pollutants might be relevant for developing preventative strategies and personalized heath programs. Furthermore, by restoring cellular differentiation, epigenetic drugs could represent a potential strategy for the treatment of many diseases including cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Tiffon
- French National Cancer Institute, 92100 Boulogne-Billancourt, France.
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16
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CUNNINGHAM RORYP, MOORE MARYP, MEERS GRACEM, RUEGSEGGER GREGORYN, BOOTH FRANKW, RECTOR RSCOTT. Maternal Physical Activity and Sex Impact Markers of Hepatic Mitochondrial Health. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2018; 50:2040-2048. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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17
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Singh KP, Miaskowski C, Dhruva AA, Flowers E, Kober KM. Mechanisms and Measurement of Changes in Gene Expression. Biol Res Nurs 2018; 20:369-382. [PMID: 29706088 PMCID: PMC6346310 DOI: 10.1177/1099800418772161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Research on gene expression (GE) provides insights into the physiology of a cell or group of cells at a given point in time. Studies of changes in GE can be used to identify patients at higher risk for various medical conditions, a higher symptom burden, and/or the adverse consequences associated with various treatments. The aims of this article are as follows: (1) to describe the different types of RNA transcripts, (2) to describe the processes involved in GE (i.e., RNA transcription, epigenetics, and posttranscriptional modifications), (3) to describe common sources of variation in GE, (4) to describe the most common methods used to measure GE, and (5) to discuss factors to consider when choosing tissue for a GE study. This article begins with an overview of the mechanisms involved in GE. Then, the factors that can influence the findings from GE experiments (e.g., tissue specificity, host age, host gender, and time of sample collection) are described and potential solutions are presented. This article concludes with a discussion of how the types of tissue used in GE studies can affect study findings. Given that the costs associated with the measurement of changes in GE are decreasing and the methods to analyze GE data are becoming easier to use, nurse scientists need to understand the basic principles that underlie any GE study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal P. Singh
- Department of Physiological Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christine Miaskowski
- Department of Physiological Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Anand A. Dhruva
- School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Elena Flowers
- Department of Physiological Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kord M. Kober
- Department of Physiological Nursing, School of Nursing, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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18
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Grigsby KB, Ruegsegger GN, Childs TE, Booth FW. Overexpression of Protein Kinase Inhibitor Alpha Reverses Rat Low Voluntary Running Behavior. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1782-1797. [PMID: 29931508 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1171-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A gene was sought that could reverse low voluntary running distances in a model of low voluntary wheel-running behavior. In order to confirm the low motivation to wheel-run in our model does not result from defects in reward valuation, we employed sucrose preference and conditioned place preference for voluntary wheel-access. We observed no differences between our model and wild-type rats regarding the aforementioned behavioral testing. Instead, low voluntary runners seemed to require less running to obtain similar rewards for low voluntary running levels compared to wild-type rats. Previous work in our lab identified protein kinase inhibitor alpha as being lower in low voluntary running than wild-type rats. Next, nucleus accumbens injections of an adenoviral-associated virus that overexpressed the protein kinase inhibitor alpha gene increased running distance in low voluntary running, but not wild-type rats. Endogenous mRNA levels for protein kinase inhibitor alpha, dopamine receptor D1, dopamine receptor D2, and Fos were all only lower in wild-type rats following overexpression compared to low voluntary runners, suggesting a potential molecular and behavioral resistance in wild-type rats. Utilizing a nucleus accumbens preparation, three intermediate early gene mRNAs increased in low voluntary running slices after dopamine receptor agonist SKF-38393 exposure, while wild-type had no response. In summary, the results suggest that protein kinase inhibitor alpha is a promising gene candidate to partially rescue physical activity in the polygenic model of low voluntary running. Importantly, there were divergent molecular responses to protein kinase inhibitor alpha overexpression in low voluntary runners compared to wild-type rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolter B Grigsby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Gregory N Ruegsegger
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.,Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Thomas E Childs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Frank W Booth
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA. .,Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA. .,Department of Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA. .,Dalton Cardiovascular Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
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