Laparoscopic ultrasound enhances standard laparoscopy in the staging of pancreatic cancer

A single crystal row-column-array for 3D ultrasound imaging

In vivo 3D ultrasound imaging with 2D-array transducers is of great importance for both clinical application and biomedical research, but it is complicated in fabrication and also very expensive in hardware due to thousands of electronic channels. In this work, we demonstrate a new fabrication process of 7-MHz 128 + 128 elements row-column-array (RCA) transducer with relaxor ferroelectric PMN-0.28PT single crystal. With piezoelectric single crystal and improved acoustic matching, the optimized performance of -6 dB bandwidth of ∼82 % and insertion loss of -44.6 dB is achieved. The axial and lateral imaging resolutions at different depth of the RCA transducer are quantified by the point spread function (PSF), and the results are respectively 0.20 mm and 0.41 mm at the depth of 7.7 mm, and 0.22 mm and 0.47 mm at the depth of 16.7 mm. The transducer is validated experimentally on a hyperechoic phantom, and 3D view and slices of B-mode images are obtained. The experimental results indicate that our developed RCA transducer can obtain high-quality 3D ultrasound images, demonstrating great potential on ultrafast 3D and functional imaging.

20-MHz phased array ultrasound transducer for in vivo ultrasound imaging of small animals

In vivo ultrasound imaging with phased array transducers is of great importance for both clinical application and biomedical research. In this work, relaxor ferroelectric PMN-0.28PT single crystal with very high piezoelectric constant d₃₃ ≥ 2000 pC/N and electromechanical coupling coefficient k₃₃ ∼ 0.92 is used to fabricate high-frequency phased array transducers. A 128-element 20-MHz phased array transducer is successfully fabricated, and the optimized performance of -6 dB average bandwidth of ∼ 84 % and insertion loss of -43 dB are achieved. The axial and lateral imaging resolutions of the transducer are determined to be 81 µm and 243 µm, respectively. With Verasonics image platform, in vivo fisheye images are acquired, demonstrating the potential application of our developed high-frequency phased array transducer for biomedical research on small animals.

Tunable high acoustic impedance alumina epoxy composite matching for high frequency ultrasound transducer

Matching layer is a critical component that determines the performance of piezoelectric ultrasound transducer. For most piezoelectric materials, their acoustic impedances are significantly higher than human tissues and organs, so a tunable matching layer with a high acoustic impedance is required for optimizing the acoustic wave transmission. In this article, a high compression fabrication method is presented, with which the acoustic impedance of alumina-epoxy composite matching layer can be tuned from 6.50 to 9.47 MRayl by controlling the applied compression pressure and ratio of the components. The maximum acoustic impedance 9.47 MRayl can be achieved by compressing a mixture of 80% alumina weight ratio under a 62.4 MPa pressure. This enhancement mainly relies on the increased acoustic longitudinal velocity which enlarged the tolerance of high to ultra-high frequency transducer fabrication using quarter wavelength matching design. Furthermore, the attenuation of the matching layer developed by this method is only -10 dB/mm at 40 MHz. The very high acoustic impedance value and very low attenuation make this matching material superior than all reported matching materials, and therefore, can enhance the performance of the ultrasound transducers, especially for medical imaging applications.

Current controversies and advances in the management of pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is a lethal disease with a mortality rate that has not significantly improved over decades. This is likely due to several challenges unique to pancreatic cancer. Most patients with pancreatic cancer are diagnosed at a late stage of disease due to the lack of specific symptoms prompting an early investigation. A small subset of patients who are diagnosed at an early stage have a better chance at survival with curative surgical resection, but most patients still succumb to the disease in a few years. The dismal overall prognosis is due to suspected micro-metastasis at an early stage. Due to this reason, there is a recent interest in treating all patients with pancreatic cancers with systemic therapy upfront (including the ones that are surgically resectable). This approach is still not the standard of care due to the lack of robust prospective data available. Recent advancements in treatment regimens of chemotherapy, radiation and immunotherapy have improved the overall short-term survival but the long-term survival still remains poor. Novel approaches in diagnosis and treatment have shown promise in clinical studies but long-term clinical data is lacking. The following manuscript presents an overview of the epidemiology, diagnosis, staging, recent advances, novel approaches and controversies in the management of pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Surgical Considerations of Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma is an aggressive malignancy of the extrahepatic bile ducts. Hilar lesions are most common. Patients present with obstructive jaundice and intrahepatic bile duct dilation. Cross-sectional imaging reveals local, regional, and distant extent of disease, with direct cholangiography providing tissue for diagnosis. The consensus of a multidisciplinary committee dictates treatment. Resection of the extrahepatic bile duct and ipsilateral hepatic lobe with or without vascular resection and transplantation after neoadjuvant protocol are options for curative treatment. The goal of surgery is to remove the tumor with negative margins. Patients with inoperable tumors or metastatic disease are best served with palliative chemoradiotherapy.

The Additional Value of Laparoscopic Ultrasound to Staging Laparoscopy in Patients with Suspected Pancreatic Head Cancer

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to evaluate the additional value of laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS) to staging laparoscopy (SL) for detecting occult liver metastases in patients with potentially resectable pancreatic head cancer.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed including all patients who underwent SL and LUS between 2005 and 2016. LUS was performed during SL to detect liver metastases not found by preoperative imaging or visual inspection of the liver.

RESULTS

Out of 197 patients, visual inspection during SL detected distant metastases in 29 (14.7%) patients. LUS was performed in 127 patients, revealing 3 additional liver metastases. The proportion of patients with unresectable disease after SL and negative LUS was 32.3%, which was similar to 36.6% of patients with unresectable disease after SL without LUS (difference 4.3%; 95% CI - 13-23%; P = 0.61). Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of LUS to detect liver metastases were 30, 100, 100, and 94%, respectively. The proportion of patients with distant metastases diagnosed at SL significantly increased over time (P = 0.031).

CONCLUSION

The routine use of LUS during SL for patients with potentially resectable pancreatic head cancer cannot be recommended. Imaging should be repeated when significant delay occurs between index CT and the scheduled surgery.

Diagnostic accuracy of laparoscopy following computed tomography (CT) scanning for assessing the resectability with curative intent in pancreatic and periampullary cancer

BACKGROUND

Surgical resection is the only potentially curative treatment for pancreatic and periampullary cancer. A considerable proportion of patients undergo unnecessary laparotomy because of underestimation of the extent of the cancer on computed tomography (CT) scanning. Laparoscopy can detect metastases not visualised on CT scanning, enabling better assessment of the spread of cancer (staging of cancer). This is an update to a previous Cochrane Review published in 2013 evaluating the role of diagnostic laparoscopy in assessing the resectability with curative intent in people with pancreatic and periampullary cancer.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of diagnostic laparoscopy performed as an add-on test to CT scanning in the assessment of curative resectability in pancreatic and periampullary cancer.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE via PubMed, EMBASE via OvidSP (from inception to 15 May 2016), and Science Citation Index Expanded (from 1980 to 15 May 2016).

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included diagnostic accuracy studies of diagnostic laparoscopy in people with potentially resectable pancreatic and periampullary cancer on CT scan, where confirmation of liver or peritoneal involvement was by histopathological examination of suspicious (liver or peritoneal) lesions obtained at diagnostic laparoscopy or laparotomy. We accepted any criteria of resectability used in the studies. We included studies irrespective of language, publication status, or study design (prospective or retrospective). We excluded case-control studies.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently performed data extraction and quality assessment using the QUADAS-2 tool. The specificity of diagnostic laparoscopy in all studies was 1 because there were no false positives since laparoscopy and the reference standard are one and the same if histological examination after diagnostic laparoscopy is positive. The sensitivities were therefore meta-analysed using a univariate random-effects logistic regression model. The probability of unresectability in people who had a negative laparoscopy (post-test probability for people with a negative test result) was calculated using the median probability of unresectability (pre-test probability) from the included studies, and the negative likelihood ratio derived from the model (specificity of 1 assumed). The difference between the pre-test and post-test probabilities gave the overall added value of diagnostic laparoscopy compared to the standard practice of CT scan staging alone.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 16 studies with a total of 1146 participants in the meta-analysis. Only one study including 52 participants had a low risk of bias and low applicability concern in the patient selection domain. The median pre-test probability of unresectable disease after CT scanning across studies was 41.4% (that is 41 out of 100 participants who had resectable cancer after CT scan were found to have unresectable disease on laparotomy). The summary sensitivity of diagnostic laparoscopy was 64.4% (95% confidence interval (CI) 50.1% to 76.6%). Assuming a pre-test probability of 41.4%, the post-test probability of unresectable disease for participants with a negative test result was 0.20 (95% CI 0.15 to 0.27). This indicates that if a person is said to have resectable disease after diagnostic laparoscopy and CT scan, there is a 20% probability that their cancer will be unresectable compared to a 41% probability for those receiving CT alone.A subgroup analysis of people with pancreatic cancer gave a summary sensitivity of 67.9% (95% CI 41.1% to 86.5%). The post-test probability of unresectable disease after being considered resectable on both CT and diagnostic laparoscopy was 18% compared to 40.0% for those receiving CT alone.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Diagnostic laparoscopy may decrease the rate of unnecessary laparotomy in people with pancreatic and periampullary cancer found to have resectable disease on CT scan. On average, using diagnostic laparoscopy with biopsy and histopathological confirmation of suspicious lesions prior to laparotomy would avoid 21 unnecessary laparotomies in 100 people in whom resection of cancer with curative intent is planned.

Diagnostic Laparoscopy with Ultrasound Still Has a Role in the Staging of Pancreatic Cancer: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Background. The reported incidence of noncurative laparotomies for pancreatic cancer using standard imaging (SI) techniques for staging remains high. The objectives of this study are to determine the diagnostic accuracy of diagnostic laparoscopy with ultrasound (DLUS) in assessing resectability of pancreatic tumors. Study Design. We systematically searched the literature for prospective studies investigating the accuracy of DLUS in determining resectability of pancreatic tumors. Results. 104 studies were initially identified and 19 prospective studies (1,573 patients) were included. DLUS correctly predicted resectability in 79% compared to 55% for SI. DLUS prevented noncurative laparotomies in 33%. Of those, the most frequent DLUS findings precluding resection were liver metastases, vascular involvement, and peritoneal metastases. DLUS had a morbidity rate of 0.8% with no mortalities. DLUS remained superior to SI when analyzing studies published only in the last five years (100% versus 81%), enrolling patients after the year 2000 (74% versus 58%), or comparing DLUS to modern multidimensional CT (100% versus 78%). Conclusion. DLUS seems to still have a role in the preoperative staging of pancreatic cancer. With its ability to detect liver metastases, vascular involvement, and peritoneal metastases, the use of DLUS leads to less noncurative laparotomies.

Surgery for Pancreatic Cancer

Surgical resection remains the only potentially curative therapy for pancreatic cancer, despite a high rate of systemic recurrence. Because of local invasion or distant spread, a minority of patients presenting with pancreatic cancer are candidates for surgery. Although perioperative mortality is low in high-volume settings, pancreatic surgery remains associated with considerable morbidity. Minimally invasive and robotic surgical techniques are increasingly used for pancreatic resection, although not always applicable to all patients. Strategies to extend the benefits of margin-negative surgical resection to more patients include surgery with vascular resection and reconstruction for locally invasive tumors, and resection after neoadjuvant therapy.

Current and future intraoperative imaging strategies to increase radical resection rates in pancreatic cancer surgery

Prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer is poor. Even the small minority that undergoes resection with curative intent has low 5-year survival rates. This may partly be explained by the high number of irradical resections, which results in local recurrence and impaired overall survival. Currently, ultrasonography is used during surgery for resectability assessment and frozen-section analysis is used for assessment of resection margins in order to decrease the number of irradical resections. The introduction of minimal invasive techniques in pancreatic surgery has deprived surgeons from direct tactile information. To improve intraoperative assessment of pancreatic tumor extension, enhanced or novel intraoperative imaging technologies accurately visualizing and delineating cancer cells are necessary. Emerging modalities are intraoperative near-infrared fluorescence imaging and freehand nuclear imaging using tumor-specific targeted contrast agents. In this review, we performed a meta-analysis of the literature on laparoscopic ultrasonography and we summarized and discussed current and future intraoperative imaging modalities and their potential for improved tumor demarcation during pancreatic surgery.

Clinical approach to the patient with a solid pancreatic mass

Diagnosis and clinical work-up of a solid pancreatic mass is a challenging problem. Patients' history, laboratory parameters, computed tomography magnetic resonance imaging, and endosonography are the cornerstones in diagnosis. Biopsy is indicated in selected patients. The main goal of surgical indication is to select patients with suspected malignancy who are resectable, but avoid unnecessary resections. About 5 % of patients resected due to suspicion of malignancy finally present with a benign histology. Autoimmune pancreatitis is the most frequent cause of such unnecessary resections.

Diagnostic accuracy of laparoscopy following computed tomography (CT) scanning for assessing the resectability with curative intent in pancreatic and periampullary cancer

BACKGROUND

Surgical resection is the only potentially curative treatment for pancreatic and periampullary cancer. A considerable proportion of patients undergo unnecessary laparotomy because of underestimation of the extent of the cancer on computed tomography (CT) scanning. Laparoscopy can detect metastases not visualised on CT scanning, enabling better assessment of the spread of cancer (staging of cancer). There has been no systematic review or meta-analysis assessing the role of diagnostic laparoscopy in assessing the resectability with curative intent in patients with pancreatic and periampullary cancer.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of diagnostic laparoscopy performed as an add-on test to CT scanning in the assessment of curative resectability in pancreatic and periampullary cancer.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Register of Diagnostic Test Accuracy Studies, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE via PubMed, EMBASE via OvidSP (from inception to 13 September 2012), and Science Citation Index Expanded (from 1980 to 13 September 2012).

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included diagnostic accuracy studies of diagnostic laparoscopy in patients with potentially resectable pancreatic and periampullary cancer on CT scan, where confirmation of liver or peritoneal involvement was by histopathological examination of suspicious (liver or peritoneal) lesions obtained at diagnostic laparoscopy or laparotomy. We accepted any criteria of resectability used in the studies. We included studies irrespective of language, publication status, or study design (prospective or retrospective). We excluded case-control studies.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently performed data extraction and quality assessment using the QUADAS-2 tool. The specificity of diagnostic laparoscopy in all studies was 1 because there were no false positives since laparoscopy and the reference standard are one and the same if histological examination after diagnostic laparoscopy is positive. Therefore, the sensitivities were meta-analysed using a univariate random-effects logistic regression model. The probability of unresectability in patients who had a negative laparoscopy (post-test probability for patients with a negative test result) was calculated using the median probability of unresectability (pre-test probability) from the included studies and the negative likelihood ratio derived from the model (specificity of 1 assumed). The difference between the pre-test and post-test probabilities gave the overall added value of diagnostic laparoscopy compared to the standard practice of CT scan staging alone.

MAIN RESULTS

Fifteen studies with a total of 1015 patients were included in the meta-analysis. Only one study including 52 patients had a low risk of bias and low applicability concern in the patient selection domain. The median pre-test probability of unresectable disease after CT scanning across studies was 40.3% (that is 40 out of 100 patients who had resectable cancer after CT scan were found to have unresectable disease on laparotomy). The summary sensitivity of diagnostic laparoscopy was 68.7% (95% CI 54.3% to 80.2%). Assuming a pre-test probability of 40.3%, the post-test probability of unresectable disease for patients with a negative test result was 0.17 (95% CI 0.12 to 0.24). This indicates that if a patient is said to have resectable disease after diagnostic laparoscopy and CT scan, there is a 17% probability that their cancer will be unresectable compared to a 40% probability for those receiving CT alone.A subgroup analysis of patients with pancreatic cancer gave a summary sensitivity of 67.9% (95% CI 41.1% to 86.5%). The post-test probability of unresectable disease after being considered resectable on both CT and diagnostic laparoscopy was 18% compared to 40% for those receiving CT alone.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Diagnostic laparoscopy may decrease the rate of unnecessary laparotomy in patients with pancreatic and periampullary cancer found to have resectable disease on CT scan. On average, using diagnostic laparoscopy with biopsy and histopathological confirmation of suspicious lesions prior to laparotomy would avoid 23 unnecessary laparotomies in 100 patients in whom resection of cancer with curative intent is planned.

Role of staging laparoscopy in peri-pancreatic and hepatobiliary malignancy

Even after extensive preoperative assessment, staging laparoscopy may allow avoidance of non-therapeutic laparotomy in patients with radiographically occult metastatic or locally unresectable disease. Staging laparoscopy is associated with decreased postoperative pain, a shorter hospital stay and a higher likelihood of receiving systemic therapy compared to laparotomy but its yield has decreased with improvements in imaging techniques. Current uses of staging laparoscopy include the following: (1) In the staging of pancreatic adenocarcinoma, laparoscopic staging allows for the identification of sub-radiographic metastatic disease in locally advanced cancer in approximately 30% of patients and, in radiographically resectable cancer, may identify metastatic disease in 10%-15% of cases; (2) In colorectal liver metastases, selective use of laparoscopic staging in patients with a clinical risk score of over 2 identifies unresectable disease in approximately 20% of patients; (3) In hepatocellular carcinoma, laparoscopic staging could be selectively used in high-risk patients such as those with clinically apparent liver cirrhosis and in patients with major vascular invasion or bilobar tumors; and (4) In biliary tract malignancy, staging laparoscopy may be used in all patients with potentially resectable primary gallbladder cancer and in selected patients with T2/T3 hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Because of the decreasing yield of SL secondary to improvements in imaging techniques, staging laparoscopy should be used selectively for patients with pancreatic and hepatobiliary malignancy to avoid unnecessary non-therapeutic laparotomy and to improve resource utilization. Each individual surgeon should apply his or her threshold as to whether staging laparoscopy is indicated according to the quality of preoperative imaging studies and the availability of resources at their own institution.

Fluorescence laparoscopy imaging of pancreatic tumor progression in an orthotopic mouse model

BACKGROUND

The use of fluorescent proteins to label tumors is revolutionizing cancer research, enabling imaging of both primary and metastatic lesions, which is important for diagnosis, staging, and therapy. This report describes the use of fluorescence laparoscopy to image green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing tumors in an orthotopic mouse model of human pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

The orthotopic mouse model of human pancreatic cancer was established by injecting GFP-expressing MiaPaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cells into the pancreas of 6-week-old female athymic mice. On postoperative day 14, diagnostic laparoscopy using both white and fluorescent light was performed. A standard laparoscopic system was modified by placing a 480-nm short-pass excitation filter between the light cable and the laparoscope in addition to using a 2-mm-thick emission filter. A camera was used that allowed variable exposure time and gain setting. For mouse laparoscopy, a 3-mm 0° laparoscope was used. The mouse's abdomen was gently insufflated to 2 mm Hg via a 22-gauge angiocatheter. After laparoscopy, the animals were sacrificed, and the tumors were collected and processed for histologic review. The experiments were performed in triplicate.

RESULTS

Fluorescence laparoscopy enabled rapid imaging of the brightly fluorescent tumor in the pancreatic body. Use of the proper filters enabled simultaneous visualization of the tumor and the surrounding structures with minimal autofluorescence. Fluorescence laparoscopy thus allowed exact localization of the tumor, eliminating the need to switch back and forth between white and fluorescence lighting, under which the background usually is so darkened that it is difficult to maintain spatial orientation.

CONCLUSION

The use of fluorescence laparoscopy permits the facile, real-time imaging and localization of tumors labeled with fluorescent proteins. The results described in this report should have important clinical potential.

Laparoscopic surgery for pancreatic tumors

The rapid growth of minimally invasive technology and experience in recent decades has revolutionized many aspects of oncologic surgery. Adoption of laparoscopic pancreatectomy has been slow due to the inherent anatomic complexity of pancreatic surgery, as well as concerns of perioperative complications and compromised oncologic results. With increasing surgeon experience and growing data, laparoscopic pancreatic resection is generating considerable attention and enthusiasm. This article provides an overview of laparoscopic pancreatic tumor surgery with respect to tumor biology and technical approaches. Current applications of laparoscopic approaches to left pancreatectomy, tumor enucleation, central pancreatectomy, and pancreaticoduodenectomy for treatment of pancreatic tumors are considered in light of available evidence demonstrating feasibility, safety, and oncologic efficacy. Future directions in minimally invasive pancreatic surgery are explored.

Vascular invasion in pancreatic cancer: Imaging modalities, preoperative diagnosis and surgical management

Pancreatic cancer is associated with a poor prognosis, and surgical resection remains the only chance for curative therapy. In the absence of metastatic disease, which would preclude resection, assessment of vascular invasion is an important parameter for determining resectability of pancreatic cancer. A frequent error is to misdiagnose an involved major vessel. Obviously, surgical exploration with pathological examination remains the “gold standard” in terms of evaluation of resectability, especially from the point of view of vascular involvement. However, current imaging modalities have improved and allow detection of vascular invasion with more accuracy. A venous resection in pancreatic cancer is a feasible technique and relatively reliable. Nevertheless, a survival benefit is not achieved by curative resection in patients with pancreatic cancer and vascular invasion. Although the discovery of an arterial invasion during the operation might require an aggressive management, discovery before the operation should be considered as a contraindication. Detection of vascular invasion remains one of the most important challenges in pancreatic surgery. The aim of this article is to provide a complete review of the different imaging modalities in the detection of vascular invasion in pancreatic cancer.

Patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma benefit from staging laparoscopy

BACKGROUND

Unnecessary laparotomy in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer may both compromise the quality of life and delay the initiation of more appropriate therapy. Very often, peritoneal small liver metastases and true local status cannot be fully determined without surgery. Laparoscopy may spare laparotomy and decrease morbidity for patients with nonresectable advanced disease. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of laparoscopy in patients with potentially resectable adenocarcinoma of the pancreas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed the records of patients undergoing pancreatic surgery at the University of Nebraska Medical Center from October 2001 to April 2005. A total of 59 patients were included in the study. All patients were staged radiographically with a high resolution helical computed tomography scan and their tumors were considered resectable. Thirty-seven patients underwent staging laparoscopy while 22 proceeded directly to laparotomy.

RESULTS

Of the 37 patients who underwent laparoscopic staging, 9 (24.3%) were detected to have metastatic disease or advanced tumor; the remaining 28 (75.7%) patients with negative laparoscopy proceeded to laparotomy. Of those, 24 patients (85.7%) underwent pancreatic resection with curative intent, while 4 patients had metastatic or locally advanced disease at subsequent laparotomy which was missed on staging laparoscopy (false negative rate of 14.3%). Of the 22 patients who proceeded directly to laparotomy, 16 (72.7%) received curative Whipple resection and 6 (27.3%) were found to have advanced disease and received bypass procedures or biopsy alone.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that staging laparoscopy is beneficial in a significant proportion of patients deemed resectable by routine noninvasive preoperative studies. We plan to add intraoperative laparoscopic ultrasound to our staging protocol in order to decrease the false negative rate.

Controversies in the management of borderline resectable proximal pancreatic adenocarcinoma with vascular involvement

Synchronous major vessel resection during pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) for borderline resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma remains controversial. In the 1970s, regional pancreatectomy advocated by Fortner was associated with unacceptably high morbidity and mortality rates, with no impact on long-term survival. With the establishment of a multidisciplinary approach, improvements in preoperative staging techniques, surgical expertise, and perioperative care reduced mortality rates and improved 5-year-survival rates are now achieved following resection in high-volume centres. Perioperative morbidity and mortality following PD with portal vein resection are comparable to standard PD, with reported 5-year-survival rates of up to 17%. Segmental resection and reconstruction of the common hepatic artery/proper hepatic artery (CHA/PHA) can be performed to achieve an R0 resection in selected patients with limited involvement of the CHA/PHA at the origin of the gastroduodenal artery (GDA). PD with concomitant major vessel resection for borderline resectable tumours should be performed when a margin-negative resection is anticipated at high-volume centres with expertise in complex pancreatic surgery. Where an incomplete (R1 or R2) resection is likely neoadjuvant treatment with systemic chemotherapy followed by chemoradiation as part of a clinical trial should be offered to all patients.

The role of staging laparoscopy for intraabdominal cancers: an evidence-based review

Diagnostic laparoscopy is minimally invasive surgery for the diagnosis of intraabdominal diseases. The aim of this review is a critical examination of the available literature on the role of laparoscopy for the staging of intraabdominal cancers. A systematic literature search of English-language articles on MEDLINE, the Cochrane database of evidence-based reviews, and the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects was performed for the period 1995-2006. The level of evidence in the identified articles was graded. The search identified and reviewed seven main categories that have received attention in the literature: esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, biliary tract cancer, colorectal cancer, and lymphoma. The indications, contraindications, risks, benefits, diagnostic accuracy of the procedure, and its associated morbidity are discussed. The limitations of the available literature are highlighted, and evidence-based recommendations for the use of laparoscopy to stage intraabdominal cancers are provided.

The platelet-lymphocyte ratio improves the predictive value of serum CA19-9 levels in determining patient selection for staging laparoscopy in suspected periampullary cancer

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to identify whether the preoperative platelet-lymphocyte (P/L) ratio might improve the predictive value of CA19-9 levels in stratifying a patient group with suspected periampullary malignancy who do not require staging laparoscopy.

METHODS

Patients with suspected periampullary cancer were identified from a prospectively maintained 10-year database. Only patients with resectable disease who underwent staging laparoscopy and subsequent laparotomy were included. Low-risk groups were stratified using a CA19-9 cutoff value of < or = 150 kU/l (or < or = 300 kU/l in patients with a concurrent bilirubin concentration > 35 micromol/l) and a P/L ratio value of < or = 150.

RESULTS

From 263 patients, preoperative CA19-9 levels and P/L ratios were available in 216 and 225 patients, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values for resectability, sensitivity, and specificity for CA19-9 levels < or = 150 kU/l were 83%, 36%, 51%, and 73%, respectively. For P/L ratios < or = 150, these levels were 81%, 38%, 51%, and 72%, respectively. When combining the requirement for both CA19-9 levels and P/L ratios to be < or = 150 (n = 38 out of 183), both positive predictive value (95%) and specificity (96%) were improved (Fisher exact test, P =.065 and P < .001, respectively); 21% of laparoscopies were avoidable when using these criteria. Increasing T stage (P = .005), vascular invasion (P < .001), perineural invasion (P = .008), and resection margin involvement (P < .001) were all associated with greater preoperative P/L ratios in resected periampullary adenocarcinoma (n = 204).

CONCLUSIONS

The preoperative P/L ratio reflects an index of tumor invasiveness and merits prospective evaluation as an adjunct to CA19-9 in determining the requirement for laparoscopic staging in patients with potentially resectable periampullary malignancy.

Current utility of staging laparoscopy for pancreatic and peripancreatic neoplasms

BACKGROUND

The routine use of staging laparoscopy in patients with radiographically resectable pancreatic and peripancreatic neoplasms remains controversial.

STUDY DESIGN

We reviewed a prospective database that identified 1,045 patients who underwent staging laparoscopy for radiographically resectable pancreatic or peripancreatic tumors between 1995 and 2005. Radiographic resectability was determined by review of radiographic reports, surgeons' notes, and cross-sectional imaging studies. Factors were assessed for their association with the laparoscopic identification of radiographically occult unresectable disease. Recursive partitioning was used to build a decision tree, with laparoscopic identification of unresectable disease as the outcomes, including only patients since 1999 (modern imaging) and factors available preoperatively.

RESULTS

Unresectable disease was identified laparoscopically in 145 of the 1,045 radiographically resectable patients (14%). Factors associated with radiographically occult unresectable disease included the time period of the study, whether imaging was performed at our institution (internal versus external imaging), primary site, histology, weight loss, and jaundice. Primary site (pancreatic versus nonpancreatic) was identified as the strongest predictor of yield. In patients with nonpancreatic tumors, the yield of laparoscopy was 4%. In patients with pancreatic tumors, the yield of laparoscopy was 14% overall, but was 8.4% in patients with internal imaging versus 17% in patients with external imaging (p < 0.01). This higher-risk subgroup was partitioned by the presence of weight loss, then by primary site within the pancreas.

CONCLUSIONS

During the time period of this study, the yield of staging laparoscopy decreased and exceeded 10% only for patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma. When high-quality cross-sectional imaging reveals no evidence of unresectable disease, routine staging laparoscopy may not be warranted for pancreatic or peripancreatic tumors other than presumed pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Laparoscopic Spleen-Preserving Distal Pancreatectomy: Description of an Original Posterior Approach

We are describing in this paper the original and innovative technique we used to perform a spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy. With the patient positioned on her right lateral side, we inserted four laparoscopic ports in the left subcostal region to enable an upper view on the spleen and its rear attachments. With this approach, we opened and dissected this plan located between the left kidney and the rear aspect of the spleen and of the pancreas. These structures, once liberated naturally, felt "en-bloc" out of the way because of the patient's lateral positioning and the gravity, exposing the operative field without any artificial retraction. Beyond this greater exposure, this new approach offers many other advantages, such as the easiness to be performed by only two operators and the preservation of the anterior abdominal cavity, the great omentum, the splenic vessels, and the short gastric vessels left untouched.

Evidence-based diagnosis and staging of pancreatic cancer

Only 20% of patients who present with pancreatic cancer will be amenable to potentially curative resection. Therefore, it is necessary to reliably identify patients who might benefit from major surgical intervention by employing the appropriate staging methods. In this review, the pros and cons of each imaging technique are discussed and an algorithm for single and combined use of the different imaging modalities is proposed. To date, contrast-enhanced multi-detector row helical CT (MDR-CT) together with endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) remain the first staging methods of choice. MDR-CT has a high sensitivity for identifying vascular invasion and EUS is able to detect lesions as small as 2-3 mm. ERCP is performed mainly in patients with biliary obstruction with the option for therapeutic intervention during the same session. MRI with MR-angiography, MRCP, PET/CT and staging laparoscopy are additional modalities which might give further information in cases of equivocal findings by MDR-CT and EUS. The role of tumour markers such as CA 19-9 and CEA is reserved for monitoring and diagnosing post-surgery recurrence. Cytological or histological confirmation should usually be performed in patients that are not eligible for surgery prior to the commencement of palliative radio- or chemotherapy. In the routine clinical setting, MDR-CT and EUS play the predominant roles by providing the most cost-effective and accurate means for diagnosing and staging most cases of pancreatic cancer.

Intraoperative ultrasonography in open and laparoscopic abdominal surgery: an overview

This article reviews the current state of intraoperative ultrasonography in open surgery (IOUS) and laparoscopic surgery (LUS). The review is based on extensive study of data published (Pubmed search) and on 25 years of personal experience with intraoperative ultrasonography. The main application areas of IOUS and LUS and its use during liver, biliary tract, and pancreatic surgery are discussed. The benefits and limitations as well as future expectations with regard to the existing and emerging applications also are discussed. New developments in ultrasound technology and the increasing experience of surgeons in ultrasonography secure the future for IOUS and LUS.

Refining the role of laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound in the staging of presumed pancreatic head and ampullary tumours

Laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound have been validated previously as staging tools for pancreatic cancer. The aim of this study was to identify if assessment of vascular involvement with abdominal computed tomography (CT) would allow refinement of the selection criteria for laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS). The details of patients staged with LUS and abdominal CT were obtained from the unit's pancreatic cancer database. A CT grade (O, A-F) of vascular involvement was recorded by a single radiologist. Of 152 patients, who underwent a LUS, 56 (37%) had unresectable disease. Three of 26 (12%) patients with CT grade O, 27 of 88 (31%) patients with CT grade A to D, 17 of 29 (59%) patients with CT grade E and all nine patients with CT grade F were found to have unresectable disease. In all, 24% of patients with tumours <3 cm were found to have unresectable disease. In those patients with tumours considered unresectable, local vascular involvement was found in 56% of patients and vascular involvement with metastatic disease in 17%, while 20% of patients had liver metastases alone and 5% had isolated peritoneal metastases. The remaining patient was deemed unfit for resection. Selective use of laparoscopic ultrasound is indicated in the staging of periampullary tumours with CT grades A to D.

The current role of staging laparoscopy for adenocarcinoma of the pancreas: a review

In the absence of metastatic disease patients with localized or locally advanced pancreatic cancer can benefit from surgical resection or chemoradiation. Despite the advances of imaging technology, however, noninvasive staging modalities are still inaccurate in identifying small volume metastatic disease leading potentially to inappropriate treatment and avoidable morbidity in a subgroup of patients. Staging laparoscopy may identify those patients with unsuspected metastatic disease on preoperative imaging and prevent unnecessary laparotomy or chemoradiation. A controversy exists, however, as to whether the procedure should be used routinely or selectively in pancreatic cancer patients with no evidence of metastasis on noninvasive staging. This review aims to assess the current role of staging laparoscopy by examining its diagnostic accuracy and ability to prevent unnecessary treatment as well as its morbidity, oncologic effect and cost-effectiveness. The available literature will be evaluated critically, its limitations identified and exisiting controversies addressed.

Computed tomography, endoscopic, laparoscopic, and intra-operative sonography for assessing resectability of pancreatic cancer

Pancreas cancer is the fourth leading cancer killer in adults. Cure of pancreas cancer is dependent on the complete surgical removal of localized tumor. A complete surgical resection is dependent on accurate preoperative and intra-operative imaging of tumor and its relationship to vital structures. Imaging of pancreatic tumors preoperatively and intra-operatively is achieved by pancreatic protocol computed tomography (CT), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS), laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS), and intra-operative ultrasound (IOUS). Multi-detector CT with three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction of images is the most useful preoperative modality to assess resectability. It has a sensitivity and specificity of 90 and 99%, respectively. It is not observer dependent. The images predict operative findings. EUS and LUS have sensitivities of 77 and 78%, respectively. They both have a very high specificity. Further, EUS has the ability to biopsy tumor and obtain a definitive tissue diagnosis. IOUS is a very sensitive (93%) method to assess tumor resectability during surgery. It adds little time and no morbidity to the operation. It greatly facilitates the intra-operative decision-making. In reality, each of these methods adds some information to help in determining the extent of tumor and the surgeon's ability to remove it. We rely on pancreatic protocol CT with 3-D reconstruction and either EUS or IOUS depending on the tumor location and operability of the tumor and patient. With these modern imaging modalities, it is now possible to avoid major operations that only determine an inoperable tumor. With proper preoperative selection, surgery is able to remove tumor in the majority of patients.

New approaches to the minimally invasive treatment of pancreatic cancer

Advances in minimally invasive surgery have revolutionized the field of surgery. Despite the great strides in equipment and experience, operative conduct remains confined by the limits of exposure. Retroperitoneal fat can be abundant and can contribute greatly to difficulty in exposure. Visceral organs ventral to the retroperitoneum preclude direct access and require optimal patient positioning to operate. Additionally, the major vascular pedicles all originate in the retroperitoneum off of the abdominal aorta or enter the inferior vena cava. The pancreas, in particular, is surrounded by the portal vein, celiac axis, superior mesenteric vein and artery, and splenic vein and artery. If injured during surgery, these vessels can present a life-threatening emergency. The issues related to the vasculature, coupled with the difficulty in resecting portions of the pancreas and the relative paucity of pancreatic procedures, have greatly concentrated these cases at tertiary care centers staffed by experienced laparoscopists. However, as surgical technology improves and fellowships train more surgeons with advanced laparoscopic skills, minimally invasive pancreatic surgery may diffuse with more community-based health care networks.

Laparoscopic spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy

Distal pancreatectomy with spleen preservation may be the preferred procedure for certain benign tumors and cystic lesions of the pancreatic body or tail. Alternatively, laparoscopic removal including either distal pancreatectomy with splenectomy or splenic-preservation with ligation of the splenic vessels have also been described. We describe, herein, our method to perform spleen-preserving laparoscopic distal pancreatectomy that preserves the splenic vessels and hence splenic function. The described technique of spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy has been used in two patients with favorable results. Both patients underwent laparoscopic distal pancreatectomy with splenic conservation for an oligocystic serous cystadenoma and serous cystadenoma. Operative time was 3-6 hours with total blood loss of less than 200 cc in both cases. The length of stay in the hospital was 4-8 days and both patients returned to work within 3 weeks. Laparoscopic spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy should be considered for younger patients with select body or tail lesions that are not candidates for less extensive procedures.

The Prognostic Effect of Clinical Staging in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

The importance of pancreatic cancer staging is uncertain. The aim of this report was to evaluate the accuracy of combined standard imaging techniques in predicting the pathologic stage and to evaluate the prognostic effect of clinical staging to identify patient groups in which laparoscopy and laparotomy could be beneficial.

METHODS

Fifty-four patients were included in this analysis. The techniques used for clinical staging were endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, abdominal computed tomographic scan, and ultrasonography. All patients underwent both clinical and surgical/pathologic staging. A comparison was performed between presurgical stage and surgical/pathologic stage. The prognostic effect of different factors on survival was evaluated with both univariate (log-rank) and multivariate (Cox) analysis.

RESULTS

Sensitivity and specificity for vascular involvement were 73.9% and 96.3%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity for nodal involvement were 63.6% and 95.4%, respectively. A total of 33.3% of patients showed a higher than expected pathologic stage, and 3.7% showed a lower than expected pathologic stage, by comparing clinical and pathologic evaluation. A highly significant correlation was observed between clinical T stage (P = .0067) and tumor diameter (P = .0037) and patient survival. Maximal prognostic differentiation was observed by dividing patients into two groups based on imaging results: group A (favorable prognosis) and group B (unfavorable prognosis). The median survival was 25.1 and 8.0 months for group A and B, respectively. Five-year survival was 20.1% and 0%, respectively (multivariate analysis: P = .0007).

CONCLUSIONS

Integrated standard imaging studies achieved reasonable diagnostic accuracy in our analysis. A single classification based on clinical stage and tumor diameter evaluated by imaging predicts prognosis in patients with pancreatic carcinoma.

Current standards of surgery for pancreatic cancer

Background

Pancreatic cancer carries a dismal prognosis but there has been a vast increase in evidence on its management in the past decade.

Methods

An electronic and manual search was performed for articles on the surgical treatment of pancreatic cancer published in the past 10 years.

Results

Six major areas of advancement were identified. Groups at high risk of developing pancreatic cancer, notably those with chronic pancreatitis and hereditary pancreatitis, have been defined, raising the need for secondary screening. Methods of staging pancreatic cancer for resection have greatly improved but accuracy is still only 85–90 per cent. Pylorus-preserving partial pancreatoduodenectomy without extended lymphadenectomy is the simplest procedure; it does not compromise long-term survival. Adjuvant chemotherapy significantly improves long-term survival. Patients who are free from major co-morbidity have better palliation by surgery (with a double bypass) than by endoscopy. High-volume centres improve the results of surgery for all outcome measures including long-term survival.

Conclusion

The surgical management of pancreatic cancer has undergone a significant change in the past decade. It has moved away from no active treatment. The standard of care can now be defined as potentially curative resection in a specialist centre followed by adjuvant systemic chemotherapy.

Limitation of diagnostic laparoscopy for patients with a periampullary carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Diagnostic laparoscopy has been generally accepted in staging of patients with a periampullary malignancy. In our institution diagnostic laparoscopy was routinely used since 1992. However, in 1998 it was eliminated from the protocol since in a prospective study a yield of only 13% was found with a histologically proven accuracy of 60% for distant metastases. The effect of implementation of the new protocol on the occurrence of unnecessary laparotomies and the outcome after bypass surgery was assessed.

METHODS

Between January 1999 and December 2001, 186 consecutive patients with a potentially resectable periampullary carcinoma after radiological staging without diagnostic laparoscopy underwent explorative laparotomy with the intention to perform a curative pancreatoduodenectomy. Incidence of unresectability and outcome of palliative surgery were assessed.

RESULTS

Resection could not be performed in 65 patients who underwent laparotomy because of metastatic disease (29 patients) and loco-regional tumour ingrowth (34 patients). These patients underwent a bypass procedure with a median survival of 216 days.

CONCLUSION

At laparotomy distant metastases were detected in 16% of the patients. Considering the fact that the detection rate of diagnostic laparoscopy is lower than 100%, the use of staging laparotomy is too limited to justify it as a routine procedure.

A new visualization technique for laparoscopic ultrasonography

BACKGROUND

Using laparoscopic ultrasonography (LUS) is challenging for both novice and experienced ultrasonographers. The major difficulty surgeons experience is understanding the orientation of the ultrasonography image. The purpose of this study was to assess whether providing surgeons with orientation information improves their ability to interpret LUS images.

METHODS

We performed a LUS examination on a 25-kg pig and simultaneously digitized video from the laparoscopic camera, the LUS, and a novel orientation system. From the video recordings, 12 different clips of intra-abdominal anatomy were prepared. Twenty surgeons (18 staff, 2 fellows) volunteered to participate in an experimental crossover study. Test subjects reviewed the LUS clips along with the laparoscopic video images and the orientation display. Controls reviewed the LUS clips with only the laparoscopic video images. Diagnostic accuracy was compared by using the odds ratio.

RESULTS

For all vessels, the orientation display improved the odds ratio for correctly identifying structures from 3.7 to 8.9 (P=.02). For arteries, the orientation display improved the odds ratio from 2.4 to 9.6 (P=.01). For veins, the orientation display improved the odds ratio from 4.4 to 13.6 (P=.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Providing orientation information significantly improves a surgeon's ability to interpret LUS images.

Staging of pancreatic head adenocarcinoma with spiral CT and endoscopic ultrasonography: an indirect evaluation of the usefulness of laparoscopy

BACKGROUND

The interest of laparoscopy in the preoperative staging of pancreatic head adenocarcinoma before curative pancreaticoduodenectomy is a matter of controversy and depends on the accuracy of preoperative imaging techniques.

AIM

To assess the potential value of laparoscopy when a standardised and optimal preoperative staging is performed, including spiral computed tomography (CT) and endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS).

METHODS

All consecutive patients operated on with a view to curative pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic head or ampullary adenocarcinoma in our centre from January 1998 to August 2000 were retrospectively studied. All of them had preoperative spiral CT and EUS. Tumour resectability was considered as highly probable (HP) or uncertain (U) according to well-defined criteria. Operative records of patients were reviewed to indirectly assess the effective resectability rate and the criteria responsible for unresectability and which of them would have been identified by laparoscopy if initially performed.

RESULTS

69 consecutive patients were studied. Resectability was HP (n = 56) or U (n = 13) after preoperative staging. Curative pancreatoduodenectomy was performed in 53 patients (77%) (48 HP, 5 U). Positive predictive value of preoperative imaging for highly probable resectability was 86% (48/56). Among the 16 unresectable tumours (8 HP, 8 U), the cause of non-resection would have been found at laparoscopy in 9 patients (56%) (6 HP, 3 U). Finally, if initially performed, laparoscopy would have avoided laparotomy in 9/69 patients (13%) (6/56 HP (11%); 3/13 U (23%)).

CONCLUSIONS

With accurate preoperative staging using spiral CT and EUS, laparoscopy would detect tumours which were unresectable in 13% of patients with pancreatic head cancer. Laparoscopy remains useful in selected patients, such as those with preoperative uncertain resectability, in whom it can prevent unnecessary laparotomy in one fourth of patients.

Diagnostic laparoscopy: indications and benefits

BACKGROUND

The increased availability of treatment options for gastrointestinal cancer, necessitates precise preoperative staging. Laparoscopy can be useful for establishing the diagnosis and staging of cancer. However, there is an ongoing discussion as to whether staging laparoscopy provides additional results despite newly developed imaging tools.

METHODS

A systematic review of relevant literature was undertaken. The strength of evidence was classified according to the North of England Evidence Based Guidelines Development Project. Medline and manual searches were carried out to identify all published manuscripts of clinical trials that dealt with staging laparoscopy. Systematic quality review of those publications was used to verify staging accuracy, complications and trocar metastases.

RESULTS

Only one randomized trial was performed in gynaecological cancer. In cervical cancer, as a result of this study, staging laparoscopy remains unproven. In gastrointestinal cancer (oesophageal, gastric, pancreatic, liver and colorectal cancers) only prospective and retrospective observational studies are available with an evidence-based level of grade B. As a result of these trials, staging laparoscopy, in a well-defined group of patients with locally advanced cancer, is recommended.

CONCLUSION

The effects of surgical staging in gynaecological cancer must be kept in mind but cannot be transferred to gastrointestinal cancer in general. Further studies are required to answer those questions.

Influence of laparoscopy on postoperative recurrence and survival in patients with ruptured hepatocellular carcinoma undergoing hepatic resection

Background

Use of laparoscopy in patients with gastrointestinal cancer has been associated with port-site and peritoneal tumour metastases. The effect of laparoscopy on tumour recurrence and long-term survival in patients undergoing resection of ruptured hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown.

Methods

Between June 1994 and December 2001, 59 patients with ruptured HCC underwent surgical exploration with a view to hepatic resection. Laparoscopy with laparoscopic ultrasonography was performed in 33 patients; the other 26 patients underwent exploratory laparotomy without laparoscopy. Perioperative and long-term outcomes were compared between the two groups.

Results

Exploratory laparotomy was avoided in 12 of 13 patients with irresectable HCC who had a laparoscopy. The hospital stay of these 12 patients was significantly shorter than that of eight patients found to have irresectable HCC at exploratory laparotomy (median 11 versus 15 days; P = 0·043). Twenty patients had a laparoscopy followed by open resection of HCC, whereas 18 patients underwent laparotomy and resection without laparoscopy. There were no significant differences in disease-free (16 versus 19 per cent; P = 0·525) and overall (32 versus 48 per cent; P = 0·176) survival at 3 years between the two groups. The tumour recurrence pattern was similar between the two groups, and there were no port-site or wound metastases.

Conclusion

Use of diagnostic laparoscopy in patients with ruptured HCC helps avoid unnecessary exploratory laparotomy. The present data suggest that laparoscopy does not have an adverse effect on tumour recurrence or survival in patients who undergo resection.

Preoperative staging and evaluation of resectability in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cancer of the pancreas is a common disease, but the large majority of patients have tumours that are irresectable at the time of diagnosis. Moreover, patients whose tumours are clearly beyond surgical cure are best treated non-operatively, if possible, by relief of biliary obstruction and percutaneous biopsy to confirm the diagnosis and then consideration of oncological treatment, notably chemotherapy. These facts underline the importance of a standard protocol for the preoperative determination of operability (is it worth operating?) and resectability (is there a chance that the tumour can be removed?). Recent years have seen the advent of many new techniques, both radiological and endoscopic, for the diagnosis and staging of pancreatic cancer. It would be impracticable in time and cost to submit every patient to every test. This review will evaluate the available techniques and offer a possible algorithm for use in routine clinical practice.

DISCUSSION

In deciding whether to operate with a view to resecting a pancreatic cancer, the surgeon must take into account factors related to the patient, the tumour and the institution and team entrusted with the patient's care. Patient-related factors include age, general health, pain and the presence or absence of malnutrition and an acute phase inflammatory response. Tumour-related factors include tumour size and evidence of spread, whether to adjacent organs (notably major blood vessels) or further afield. Hospital-related factors chiefly concern the volume of pancreatic cancer treated and thus the experience of the whole team. Determination of resectability is heavily dependent upon detailed imaging. Nowadays conventional ultrasonography can be supplemented by endoscopic, laparoscopic and intra-operative techniques. Computed tomography (CT) remains the single most useful staging modality, but MRI continues to improve. PET scanning may demonstrate unsuspected metastases and likewise laparoscopy. Diagnostic cholangiography can be performed more easily by MR techniques than by endoscopy, but ERCP is still valuable for preoperative biliary decompression in appropriate patients. The role of angiography has declined. Percutaneous biopsy and peritoneal cytology are not usually required in patients with an apparently resectable tumour. The prognostic value of tumour marker levels and bone marrow biopsy is yet to be established. Preoperative chemotherapy or chemoradiation may have a role in down-staging an irresectable tumour sufficiently to render it resectable. Selective use of diagnostic laparoscopy staging is potentially helpful in determination of resectability. Laparotomy remains the definitive method for determining the resectability of pancreatic cancer, with or without portal vein resection, and should be undertaken in suitable patients without clear-cut evidence of irresectability.

[Laparoscopic pancreatic resections]

The feasibility of laparoscopic pancreatic resection has been demonstrated. However, the real clinical benefit for the patients remains questioned. The best indication for a laparoscopic approach appears to be the resection of benign or neuro-endocrine tumors without a need for pancreato-enteric reconstruction (i.e enucleation or distal pancreatectomy). The use of the laparoscopic approach for malignant tumors still remains controversial. The benefits of minimally invasive surgery are clearly correlated with the successful management of the pancreatic stump. Pancreatic related complication rate (fistula and collection) is 15% when using pancreatic transection with a laparoscopic endostappler.

Is there additional information from laparoscopic ultrasound in tumor staging?

Accurate preoperative staging of gastrointestinal malignancies is of major importance in the decision for adequate stage-related therapy. There is evidence that laparoscopy in combination with laparoscopic ultrasound is more accurate in the detection of intra-abdominal metastases than conventional preoperative imaging. Staging laparoscopy in combination with laparoscopic ultrasound is a minimally invasive technique that reveals intra-abdominal disseminated tumor spread and local tumor extent. Therefore laparoscopic ultrasound is an ideal adjunct to laparoscopy because this technique may compensate for the lack of tactile feedback with laparoscopic instruments. Color-coded Doppler imaging can be very valuable for the assessment of resectability in patients with pancreatic cancer. Current data confirm that laparoscopic ultrasound is capable of enhancing the accuracy of staging laparoscopy. Compared to standard laparoscopy, a combination of both techniques markedly increases the sensitivity of staging laparoscopy in the determination of unresectable disease. This is of major importance in the assessment of occult liver metastases and lymph node involvement. Laparoscopic ultrasonography improves the diagnostic accuracy compared to conventional imaging techniques and should be considered as integral part of staging laparoscopy.

Staging laparoscopy and its indications in pancreatic cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopy has become a popular and widespread surgical technique. An important goal in the treatment of patients with pancreatic cancer is to avoid any unnecessary procedure. Laparoscopy has been suggested as a routine tool for staging in order to prevent unnecessary laparotomies in these patients.

METHODS

In this article we present our experience regarding the value of laparoscopic staging and review the literature on this topic.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

A direct and conclusive comparison of the controversial literature is difficult because of different study designs. Inconsistent use of high-quality CT scans significantly affects the results. However, recent studies reveal that not more than 14% of the patients benefit from diagnostic laparoscopy when a state-of-the-art CT scan has been performed previously. Therefore, we conclude that routine diagnostic laparoscopy is not justified in all patients with pancreatic cancer. Rather, selective use is appropriate, especially in patients in whom ascites is an indirect sign of peritoneal metastases, or if liver metastases cannot be surely excluded preoperatively. This approach is cost-effective and limits diagnostic laparoscopy to a subgroup of patients in whom a laparotomy can be avoided.

The role of staging laparoscopy in hepatobiliary malignancy: prospective analysis of 401 cases

BACKGROUND

Patients with potentially resectable hepatobiliary malignancy are frequently found to have unresectable tumors at laparotomy. We prospectively evaluated staging laparoscopy in patients with resectable disease on preoperative imaging.

METHODS

Staging laparoscopy was performed on 410 patients with potentially resectable hepatobiliary malignancy. The preoperative likelihood of resectability was recorded. Data on preoperative imaging, operative findings, and hospital course were analyzed.

RESULTS

Laparoscopic inspection was complete in 291 (73%) patients. In total, 153 patients (38%) had unresectable disease, 84 of whom were identified laparoscopically, increasing resectability from 62% to 78%. On multivariate analysis, a complete examination, preoperative likelihood of resection, and primary diagnosis were significant predictors of identifying unresectable disease at laparoscopy. The highest yield was for biliary cancers, and the lowest was for metastatic colorectal cancer. In patients with unresectable disease identified at laparoscopy, the mean hospital stay was 3 days, and postoperative morbidity was 9%, compared with 8 days and 27%, respectively, in patients found to have unresectable disease at laparotomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopy spared one in five patients a laparotomy while reducing hospital stay and morbidity. Targeting laparoscopy to patients at high risk for unresectable disease requires consideration of disease-specific factors; however, the surgeons' preoperative impression of resectability is also important.