ATP-induced movement of the stalks of isolated cochlear Deiters' cells

Oncomodulin regulates spontaneous calcium signalling and maturation of afferent innervation in cochlear outer hair cells

Cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) are responsible for the exquisite frequency selectivity and sensitivity of mammalian hearing. During development, the maturation of OHC afferent connectivity is refined by coordinated spontaneous Ca2+ activity in both sensory and non-sensory cells. Calcium signalling in neonatal OHCs can be modulated by oncomodulin (OCM, β-parvalbumin), an EF-hand calcium-binding protein. Here, we investigated whether OCM regulates OHC spontaneous Ca2+ activity and afferent connectivity during development. Using a genetically encoded Ca2+ sensor (GCaMP6s) expressed in OHCs in wild-type (Ocm+/+ ) and Ocm knockout (Ocm-/- ) littermates, we found increased spontaneous Ca2+ activity and upregulation of purinergic receptors in OHCs from Ocm-/- cochlea immediately following birth. The afferent synaptic maturation of OHCs was delayed in the absence of OCM, leading to an increased number of ribbon synapses and afferent fibres on Ocm-/- OHCs before hearing onset. We propose that OCM regulates the spontaneous Ca2+ signalling in the developing cochlea and the maturation of OHC afferent innervation. KEY POINTS: Cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) exhibit spontaneous Ca2+ activity during a narrow period of neonatal development. OHC afferent maturation and connectivity requires spontaneous Ca2+ activity. Oncomodulin (OCM, β-parvalbumin), an EF-hand calcium-binding protein, modulates Ca2+ signals in immature OHCs. Using transgenic mice that endogenously expressed a Ca2+ sensor, GCaMP6s, we found increased spontaneous Ca2+ activity and upregulated purinergic receptors in Ocm-/- OHCs. The maturation of afferent synapses in Ocm-/- OHCs was also delayed, leading to an upregulation of ribbon synapses and afferent fibres in Ocm-/- OHCs before hearing onset. We propose that OCM plays an important role in modulating Ca2+ activity, expression of Ca2+ channels and afferent innervation in developing OHCs.

TRPA1 activation in non-sensory supporting cells contributes to regulation of cochlear sensitivity after acoustic trauma

TRPA1 channels are expressed in nociceptive neurons, where they detect noxious stimuli, and in the mammalian cochlea, where their function is unknown. Here we show that TRPA1 activation in the supporting non-sensory Hensen's cells of the mouse cochlea causes prolonged Ca2+ responses, which propagate across the organ of Corti and cause long-lasting contractions of pillar and Deiters' cells. Caged Ca2+ experiments demonstrated that, similar to Deiters' cells, pillar cells also possess Ca2+-dependent contractile machinery. TRPA1 channels are activated by endogenous products of oxidative stress and extracellular ATP. Since both these stimuli are present in vivo after acoustic trauma, TRPA1 activation after noise may affect cochlear sensitivity through supporting cell contractions. Consistently, TRPA1 deficiency results in larger but less prolonged noise-induced temporary shift of hearing thresholds, accompanied by permanent changes of latency of the auditory brainstem responses. We conclude that TRPA1 contributes to the regulation of cochlear sensitivity after acoustic trauma.

Oncomodulin Regulates Spontaneous Calcium Signaling and Maturation of Afferent Innervation in Cochlear Outer Hair Cells

Cochlear outer hair cells (OHCs) are responsible for the exquisite frequency selectivity and sensitivity of mammalian hearing. During development, the maturation of OHC afferent connectivity is refined by coordinated spontaneous Ca 2+ activity in both sensory and non-sensory cells. Calcium signaling in neonatal OHCs can be modulated by Oncomodulin (OCM, β-parvalbumin), an EF-hand calcium-binding protein. Here, we investigated whether OCM regulates OHC spontaneous Ca 2+ activity and afferent connectivity during development. Using a genetically encoded Ca 2+ sensor (GCaMP6s) expressed in OHCs in wild-type (Ocm +/+ ) and Ocm knockout (Ocm -/- ) littermates, we found increased spontaneous Ca 2+ activity and upregulation of purinergic receptors in OHCs from GCaMP6s Ocm -/- cochlea immediately following birth. The afferent synaptic maturation of OHCs was delayed in the absence of OCM, leading to an increased number of ribbon synapses and afferent fibers on GCaMP6s Ocm -/- OHCs before hearing onset. We propose that OCM regulates the spontaneous Ca 2+ signaling in the developing cochlea and the maturation of OHC afferent innervation.

Postnatal Development of the Subcellular Structures and Purinergic Signaling of Deiters' Cells along the Tonotopic Axis of the Cochlea

Exploring the development of the hearing organ helps in the understanding of hearing and hearing impairments and it promotes the development of the regenerative approaches-based therapeutic efforts. The role of supporting cells in the development of the organ of Corti is much less elucidated than that of the cochlear sensory receptor cells. The use of our recently published method of single-cell electroporation loading of a fluorescent Ca²⁺ probe in the mouse hemicochlea preparation provided an appropriate means to investigate the Deiters’ cells at the subcellular level in two different cochlear turns (apical, middle). Deiters’ cell’s soma and process elongated, and the process became slimmer by maturation without tonotopic preference. The tonotopically heterogeneous spontaneous Ca²⁺ activity less frequently occurred by maturation and implied subcellular difference. The exogenous ATP- and UTP-evoked Ca²⁺ responses were maturation-dependent and showed P2Y receptor dominance in the apical turn. By monitoring the basic structural dimensions of this supporting cell type as well as its spontaneous and evoked purinergic Ca²⁺ signaling in the hemicochlea preparation in different stages in the critical postnatal P5-25 developmental period for the first time, we showed that the soma and the phalangeal process of the Deiters’ cells go through age- and tonotopy-dependent changes in the morphometric parameters and purinergic signaling.

Purinergic Signaling and Cochlear Injury-Targeting the Immune System?

Hearing impairment is the most common sensory deficit, affecting more than 400 million people worldwide. Sensorineural hearing losses currently lack any specific or efficient pharmacotherapy largely due to the insufficient knowledge of the pathomechanism. Purinergic signaling plays a substantial role in cochlear (patho)physiology. P2 (ionotropic P2X and the metabotropic P2Y) as well as adenosine receptors expressed on cochlear sensory and non-sensory cells are involved mostly in protective mechanisms of the cochlea. They are implicated in the sensitivity adjustment of the receptor cells by a K⁺ shunt and can attenuate the cochlear amplification by modifying cochlear micromechanics. Cochlear blood flow is also regulated by purines. Here, we propose to comprehend this field with the purine-immune interactions in the cochlea. The role of harmful immune mechanisms in sensorineural hearing losses has been emerging in the horizon of cochlear pathologies. In addition to decreasing hearing sensitivity and increasing cochlear blood supply, influencing the immune system can be the additional avenue for pharmacological targeting of purinergic signaling in the cochlea. Elucidating this complexity of purinergic effects on cochlear functions is necessary and it can result in development of new therapeutic approaches in hearing disabilities, especially in the noise-induced ones.

Purinergic signaling in the organ of Corti: Potential therapeutic targets of sensorineural hearing losses

Purinergic signaling is deeply involved in the development, functions and protective mechanisms of the cochlea. Release of ATP and activation of purinergic receptors on sensory and supporting/epithelial cells play a substantial role in cochlear (patho)physiology. Both the ionotropic P2X and the metabotropic P2Y receptors are widely distributed on the inner and outer hair cells as well as on the different supporting cells in the organ of Corti and on other epithelial cells in the scala media. Among others, they are implicated in the sensitivity adjustment of the receptor cells by a K⁺ shunt and can attenuate the cochlear amplification by modifying cochlear micromechanics acting on outer hair cells and supporting cells. Cochlear blood flow is also regulated by purines. Sensorineural hearing losses currently lack any specific or efficient pharmacotherapy. Decreasing hearing sensitivity and increasing cochlear blood supply by pharmacological targeting of purinergic signaling in the cochlea are potential new therapeutic approaches in these hearing disabilities, especially in the noise-induced ones.

ATP-Evoked Intracellular Ca²⁺ Signaling of Different Supporting Cells in the Hearing Mouse Hemicochlea

Hearing and its protection is regulated by ATP-evoked Ca(2+) signaling in the supporting cells of the organ of Corti, however, the unique anatomy of the cochlea hampers observing these mechanisms. For the first time, we have performed functional ratiometric Ca(2+) imaging (fura-2) in three different supporting cell types in the hemicochlea preparation of hearing mice to measure purinergic receptor-mediated Ca(2+) signaling in pillar, Deiters' and Hensen's cells. Their resting [Ca(2+)]i was determined and compared in the same type of preparation. ATP evoked reversible, repeatable and dose-dependent Ca(2+) transients in all three cell types, showing desensitization. Inhibiting the Ca(2+) signaling of the ionotropic P2X (omission of extracellular Ca(2+)) and metabotropic P2Y purinergic receptors (depletion of intracellular Ca(2+) stores) revealed the involvement of both receptor types. Detection of P2X2,3,4,6,7 and P2Y1,2,6,12,14 receptor mRNAs by RT-PCR supported this finding and antagonism by PPADS suggested different functional purinergic receptor population in pillar versus Deiters' and Hensen's cells. The sum of the extra- and intracellular Ca(2+)-dependent components of the response was about equal with the control ATP response (linear additivity) in pillar cells, and showed supralinearity in Deiters' and Hensen's cells. Calcium-induced calcium release might explain this synergistic interaction. The more pronounced Ca(2+) leak from the endoplasmic reticulum in Deiters' and Hensen's cells, unmasked by cyclopiazonic acid, may also suggests the higher activity of the internal stores in Ca(2+) signaling in these cells. Differences in Ca(2+) homeostasis and ATP-induced Ca(2+) signaling might reflect the distinct roles these cells play in cochlear function and pathophysiology.

Potassium currents in isolated deiters' cells of Guinea pig

Deiters' cells are the supporting cells in organ of Corti and are suggested to play an important role in biochemical and mechanical modulation of outer hair cells. We successfully isolated functionally different K⁺ currents from Deiters' cells of guinea pig using whole cell patch clamp technique. With high K⁺ pipette solution, depolarizing step pulses activated strongly outward rectifying currents which were dose-dependently blocked by clofilium, a class III anti-arrhythmic K⁺ channel blocker. The remaining outward current was transient in time course whereas the clofilium-sensitive outward current showed slow inactivation and delayed rectification. Addition of 5 mM tetraethylammonium (TEA) further blocked the remaining current leaving a very fast inactivating transient outward current. Therefore, at least three different types of K⁺ current were identified in Deiters' cells, such as fast activating and fast inactivating current, fast activating slow inactivating current, and very fast inactivating transient outward current. Physiological role of them needs to be established.

Active cochlear amplification is dependent on supporting cell gap junctions

Mammalian hearing relies upon active cochlear mechanics, which arises from outer hair cell (OHC) electromotility and hair bundle movement, to amplify acoustic stimulations increasing hearing sensitivity and frequency selectivity. Here we describe the novel finding that gap junctions between cochlear supporting cells also have a critical role in active cochlear amplification in vivo. We find that targeted-deletion of connexin26 (Cx26) in Deiters cells (DCs) and outer pillar cells (OPCs), which constrain OHCs standing on the basilar membrane, causes a leftward shift in OHC electromotility towards hyperpolarization, and reduces active cochlear amplification with hearing loss. Coincident with large reduction in distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) and severe hearing loss at high frequencies, the shift is larger in shorter OHCs. Our study demonstrates that active cochlear amplification in vivo is dependent on supporting cell gap junctions. These new findings also show that Cx26 deficiency can reduce active cochlear amplification to induce hearing loss.

Differential expression of ryanodine receptor in the developing rat cochlea

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are one of the intracellular calcium channels involved in regulation of intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]i). The immunolocalization of RyRs was investigated in the developing rat cochlea at different postnatal days (PND). The change of [Ca²⁺]i in isolated outer hair cells (OHCs) was determined. Morphological results showed low expression of RyRs in the Kolliker’s organ from the PND 5 group. RyR expression in inner hair cells (IHCs) increased as the rats aged, and was mature after PND 14. RyRs in OHCs were expressed near the synaptic area of afferent and efferent nerves. RyRs in supporting cells were expressed widely and strongly. The application of ACh, ryanodine + ACh, and thapsigargin + ACh could induce a significant increase in [Ca²⁺]i in OHCs in the presence of extracellular calcium. This increase of [Ca²⁺]i induced by ACh was caused by not only the calcium influx through surface calcium channels, but also the calciuminduced calcium release (CICR) from intracellular RyR-sensitive calcium stores. Morphological and Ca imaging results suggested that RyRs expression is related to cochlear maturity, and may play an important role in its function.

Reduced P2x(2) receptor-mediated regulation of endocochlear potential in the ageing mouse cochlea

Extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has profound effects on the cochlea, including an effect on the regulation of the endocochlear potential (EP). Noise-induced release of ATP into the endolymph activates a shunt conductance mediated by P2X(2) receptors in tissues lining the endolymphatic compartment, which reduces the EP and, consequentially, hearing sensitivity. This may be a mechanism of adaptation or protection from high sound levels. As inaction of such a process could contribute to hearing loss, this study examined whether the action of ATP on EP changes with age and noise exposure in the mouse. The EP and the endolymphatic compartment resistance (CoPR) were measured in mice (CBA/CaJ) aged between 3 and 15 months. The EP and CoPR declined slightly with age with an associated small, but significant, reduction in auditory brainstem response thresholds. ATP (100-1,000 muM) microinjected into the endolymphatic compartment caused a dose-dependent decline in EP correlated to a similar decrease in CoPR. This was blocked by pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonate, consistent with a P2X(2) receptor-mediated shunt conductance. There was no substantial difference in the ATP response with age. Noise exposure (octave-band noise 80-100 decibels sound pressure level (dBSPL), 48 h) in young animals induced an upregulation of the P2X(2) receptor expression in the organ of Corti and spiral limbus, most noticeably with the 90-dB exposure. This did not occur in the aged animals except following exposure at 90 dBSPL. The EP response to ATP was muted in the noise-exposed aged animals except following the 90-dB exposure. These findings provide some evidence that the adaptive response of the cochlea to noise may be reduced in older animals, and it is speculated that this could increase their susceptibility to noise-induced injury.

Modulation of outer hair cell electromotility by cochlear supporting cells and gap junctions

Outer hair cell (OHC) or prestin-based electromotility is an active cochlear amplifier in the mammalian inner ear that can increase hearing sensitivity and frequency selectivity. In situ, Deiters supporting cells are well-coupled by gap junctions and constrain OHCs standing on the basilar membrane. Here, we report that both electrical and mechanical stimulations in Deiters cells (DCs) can modulate OHC electromotility. There was no direct electrical conductance between the DCs and the OHCs. However, depolarization in DCs reduced OHC electromotility associated nonlinear capacitance (NLC) and distortion products. Increase in the turgor pressure of DCs also shifted OHC NLC to the negative voltage direction. Destruction of the cytoskeleton in DCs or dissociation of the mechanical-coupling between DCs and OHCs abolished these effects, indicating the modulation through the cytoskeleton activation and DC-OHC mechanical coupling rather than via electric field potentials. We also found that changes in gap junctional coupling between DCs induced large membrane potential and current changes in the DCs and shifted OHC NLC. Uncoupling of gap junctions between DCs shifted NLC to the negative direction. These data indicate that DCs not only provide a physical scaffold to support OHCs but also can directly modulate OHC electromotility through the DC-OHC mechanical coupling. Our findings reveal a new mechanism of cochlear supporting cells and gap junctional coupling to modulate OHC electromotility and eventually hearing sensitivity in the inner ear.

Physiology and pathophysiology of purinergic neurotransmission

This review is focused on purinergic neurotransmission, i.e., ATP released from nerves as a transmitter or cotransmitter to act as an extracellular signaling molecule on both pre- and postjunctional membranes at neuroeffector junctions and synapses, as well as acting as a trophic factor during development and regeneration. Emphasis is placed on the physiology and pathophysiology of ATP, but extracellular roles of its breakdown product, adenosine, are also considered because of their intimate interactions. The early history of the involvement of ATP in autonomic and skeletal neuromuscular transmission and in activities in the central nervous system and ganglia is reviewed. Brief background information is given about the identification of receptor subtypes for purines and pyrimidines and about ATP storage, release, and ectoenzymatic breakdown. Evidence that ATP is a cotransmitter in most, if not all, peripheral and central neurons is presented, as well as full accounts of neurotransmission and neuromodulation in autonomic and sensory ganglia and in the brain and spinal cord. There is coverage of neuron-glia interactions and of purinergic neuroeffector transmission to nonmuscular cells. To establish the primitive and widespread nature of purinergic neurotransmission, both the ontogeny and phylogeny of purinergic signaling are considered. Finally, the pathophysiology of purinergic neurotransmission in both peripheral and central nervous systems is reviewed, and speculations are made about future developments.

Differential distribution of adenosine receptors in rat cochlea

Adenosine is a constitutive cell metabolite that can be released from cells via specific bi-directional transporters and is an end-point for nucleotide hydrolysis. In the extracellular space, adenosine becomes a signalling molecule for P1 (adenosine) receptors that modulate physiological responses in a wide range of mammalian tissues. Whereas adenosine signalling has been implicated in the regulation of cochlear blood flow and in cochlear protection from oxidative damage, the potential roles for adenosine signalling in the modulation of sound transduction and auditory neurotransmission have not been established. We have characterised the expression and distribution of adenosine receptors in the rat cochlea. mRNA transcripts for all four subtypes of adenosine receptors (A(1), A(2A), A(2B) and A(3)) were detected in dissected cochlear tissue by using reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction analysis. The protein distribution for the A(1), A(2A) and A(3) receptor subtypes was identified by immunoperoxidase histochemistry and confocal immunofluorescence labelling. These receptors were differentially expressed in the organ of Corti, spiral ganglion neurones, lateral wall tissues and cochlear blood vessels. The distribution of adenosine receptors in sensory and neural tissues and in the vasculature coincided with other elements of purinergic signalling (P2X and P2Y receptors, ectonucleotidases), consistent with the integrative regulation of many physiological processes in the cochlea by extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides. Our study provides a framework for further investigation of adenosine signalling in the inner ear, including putative roles in oxidative stress responses.

Ryanodine receptor localisation in the mammalian cochlea: an ultrastructural study

Calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) in the mammalian cochlea has been suggested to enhance neurotransmitter release from inner hair cells and facilitate the efferent response in outer hair cells. Light microscopic evidence exists for the presence of ryanodine receptors in the organ of Corti but there is so far no information about their ultrastructural localisation. We have therefore used post-embedding immunogold labeling with antibodies that predominantly recognise ryanodine receptor isoforms 1 (RyR1) and 2 (RyR2) to investigate their distribution in rat cochleae. In inner hair cells, the highest levels of labeling were observed over an area of rough endoplasmic reticulum that lies in the cytoplasmic region beneath the nucleus; in outer hair cells, the cytoplasmic region above the nucleus displayed most labeling. Labeling was also associated with the subsurface cisternae adjacent to the lateral membranes of both types of hair cell, with the efferent terminals on the outer hair cells and was observed in adjacent supporting cells. Labeling in outer hair cells was significantly higher than that in inner hair cells or in the supporting cells. Our results support the presence of RyR1 in the cochlea but do not rule out the presence of other isoforms. CICR may be involved in the control of calcium levels in the base of the inner hair cells and supporting cells, and in the cholinergic efferent response and motile behaviour of the outer hair cells.

Purinergic P2 receptors as targets for novel analgesics

Following hints in the early literature about adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) injections producing pain, an ion-channel nucleotide receptor was cloned in 1995, P2X3 subtype, which was shown to be localized predominantly on small nociceptive sensory nerves. Since then, there has been an increasing number of papers exploring the role of P2X3 homomultimer and P2X2/3 heteromultimer receptors on sensory nerves in a wide range of organs, including skin, tongue, tooth pulp, intestine, bladder, and ureter that mediate the initiation of pain. Purinergic mechanosensory transduction has been proposed for visceral pain, where ATP released from epithelial cells lining the bladder, ureter, and intestine during distension acts on P2X3 and P2X2/3, and possibly P2Y, receptors on subepithelial sensory nerve fibers to send messages to the pain centers in the brain as well as initiating local reflexes. P1, P2X, and P2Y receptors also appear to be involved in nociceptive neural pathways in the spinal cord. P2X4 receptors on spinal microglia have been implicated in allodynia. The involvement of purinergic signaling in long-term neuropathic pain and inflammation as well as acute pain is discussed as well as the development of P2 receptor antagonists as novel analgesics.

Hair Cells – Beyond the Transducer

OVERVIEW

This review considers the "tween twixt and twain" of hair cell physiology, specifically the signaling elements and membrane conductances which underpin forward and reverse transduction at the input stage of hair cell function and neurotransmitter release at the output stage. Other sections of this review series outline the advances which have been made in understanding the molecular physiology of mechanoelectrical transduction and outer hair cell electromotility. Here we outline the contributions of a considerable array of ion channels and receptor signaling pathways that define the biophysical status of the sensory hair cells, contributing to hair cell development and subsequently defining the operational condition of the hair cells across the broad dynamic range of physiological function.

Differential expression of potassium currents in Deiters cells of the guinea pig cochlea

Among the supporting cells, Deiters cells are in intimate contact with outer hair cells (OHCs) in the inner ear. The aim of this study was to characterize the outward rectifying K+ current of Deiters cells in conjunction with cellular morphological characteristics. In the majority of cells, the K+ current had a biphasic inactivation kinetics (tau1 and tau2 were 2,735+/-90 (n=77) and 160+/-14 ms (n=72), respectively). The rapidly inactivating current component was more sensitive to Charybdotoxin (ChTx, 10 nM) block whereas the slowly inactivating current could be blocked more efficiently by tetraethylammonium (1 mM). All these point toward the existence of two distinct potassium channel types in these cells. Deiters cells attached to shorter OHCs had more voluminous, whereas those attached to longer OHCs had lanky cell bodies. The inactivation kinetics was slower in cells having corpulent cell bodies due to the increased proportion of the slowly inactivating current component (0.736+/-0.033, n=27) as compared to the one determined for lanky cells (0.522+/-0.023, n=36). The average peak K+ current was higher in Deiters cells connected to OHCs (5,417+/-541 pA, n=40) than in isolated ones (3,527+/-410, n=37). Deiters cells having different cell shapes and showing different K+ channel expression may contribute to the active mechanism of the cochlea to various degrees.

Ryanodine receptors and BK channels act as a presynaptic depressor of neurotransmission in cochlear inner hair cells

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are known to contribute to the regulation of free cytosolic calcium concentration. This family of intracellular calcium channels plays a significant role in calcium-induced-calcium-release (CICR), and have been implicated in calcium-dependent processes requiring exquisite spatio-temporal regulation. In order to characterize the importance of these intracellular calcium channels in cochlear physiology, we perfused the guinea pig cochlea with antagonistic concentrations of ryanodine. The distortion products of the cochlear microphonic and the compound action potential of the auditory nerve were reversibly inhibited by ryanodine (IC(50)=27.3 microm, Hill coefficient=1.9), indicating an action at the cochlear amplifier. Single auditory nerve fibre recordings showed that ryanodine slightly increased spontaneous firing rates by 22%, suggesting an excitatory effect of ryanodine. This paradoxical effect could be explained by an inhibitory action of ryanodine on presynaptic BK channels of inner hair cells (IHC). Indeed, perfusing iberiotoxin also increased the spontaneous firing activity of the auditory nerve fibres. Furthermore, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings demonstrated that ryanodine inhibits BK currents at the IHC level. Conversely, immunohistochemistry demonstrated a strong expression of RyR in IHCs and, more particularly, below the cuticular plate where membranous BK channels are highly expressed. Overall, the study demonstrated a key role for RyR and CICR in signal transduction at the IHCs. We therefore propose that coupled RyR--BK channels act to suppress the fast neurotransmission in IHCs.

Noise exposure induces up-regulation of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases 1 and 2 in rat cochlea

Extracellular ATP acting via P2 receptors in the inner ear initiates a variety of signaling pathways that may be involved in noise-induced cochlear injury. Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase)1/CD39 and NTPDase2/CD39L1 are key elements for regulation of extracellular nucleotide concentrations and P2 receptor signaling in the cochlea. This study characterized the effect of noise exposure on regulation of NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 expression in the cochlea using a combination of real-time RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and functional studies. Adult Wistar rats were exposed to broad band noise at 90 dB and 110 dB sound pressure level (SPL) for 72 h. Exposure to 90 dB SPL induced a small and temporary change of auditory thresholds (temporary threshold shift), while exposure to 110 dB SPL induced a robust and permanent change of auditory thresholds (permanent threshold shift). NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 mRNA transcripts were upregulated in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL, while mild noise (90 dB SPL) altered only NTPDase1 mRNA expression levels. Changes in NTPDases expression did not correlate with levels of circulating corticosterone, implying that the up-regulation of NTPDases expression was not stress-related. Semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL localized the increased NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 immunostaining in the stria vascularis and up-regulation of NTPDase2 in the intraganglionic spiral bundle. In contrast, NTPDase1 was down-regulated in the cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurones. Distribution of NTPDases was not altered in the cochlea exposed to 90 dB SPL. Functional studies revealed increased ectonucleotidase activities in the cochlea after exposure to 110 dB SPL, consistent with up-regulation of NTPDases. The changes in NTPDases expression may reflect adaptive response of cochlear tissues to limit ATP signaling during noise exposure.

Developmental expression of Ca(v)1.3 (alpha1d) calcium channels in the mouse inner ear

Voltage-gated calcium channels are important for neurotransmission at the level of inner hair cells (IHCs) and outer hair cells (OHCs). These channels open when mechanical stimulation depolarises the hair cell membrane and the resulting calcium influx triggers neurotransmitter release. Voltage-gated calcium channels expressed in hair cells are known to be of the L-type with a predominance of the Ca(v)1.3 subunit. The present study describes the developmental expression of the Ca(v)1.3 protein in the cochlea and the vestibular system using immunohistochemical technique. In the adult organ of Corti (OC), Ca(v)1.3 was localized in both sensory and non-sensory cells with a more intense expression in IHCs and Deiters cells when compared to OHCs. In both hair cell types, immunoreactivity was observed in the apical pole, basolateral membrane and at the basal pole (synaptic zone). Similar results were obtained in the vestibular organs. During development, Ca(v)1.3 immunoreactivity was observed in the cochlea as early as embryonic day 15, with expression increasing at birth. At these early stages of cochlear development, Ca(v)1.3 was expressed in all cell types surrounding the scala media. In the OC, the labeling was observed in IHCs, OHCs and supporting cells. The Ca(v)1.3 expression reached an adult-like pattern by the end of the second postnatal week. The present findings suggested that, in addition to their implication in hair cells synaptic transmission, Ca(v)1.3 calcium channels also play an important role in vesicle recycling and transport, as suggested by their extrasynaptic location at the apical pole of the hair cells. The Ca(v)1.3 channels in Deiters cells could participate in active calcium-induced changes in micromechanics of these supporting cells. An early expression during development suggested that these calcium channels are in addition important in the development of the cochlear and vestibular sensory epithelium.

Cellular Distribution and Functions of P2 Receptor Subtypes in Different Systems

This review is aimed at providing readers with a comprehensive reference article about the distribution and function of P2 receptors in all the organs, tissues, and cells in the body. Each section provides an account of the early history of purinergic signaling in the organ?cell up to 1994, then summarizes subsequent evidence for the presence of P2X and P2Y receptor subtype mRNA and proteins as well as functional data, all fully referenced. A section is included describing the plasticity of expression of P2 receptors during development and aging as well as in various pathophysiological conditions. Finally, there is some discussion of possible future developments in the purinergic signaling field.

Thapsigargin suppresses cochlear potentials and DPOAEs and is toxic to hair cells

Thapsigargin, a drug that inhibits sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPases (SERCAs), was infused into the perilymph compartment of the guinea pig cochlea in increasing concentrations (0.1-10 microM) while sound evoked cochlear potentials were monitored. Thapsigargin significantly suppressed the compound action potential of the auditory nerve, cochlear microphonics, and increased N(1) latency at low (56 dB SPL) and high intensity (92 dB SPL) levels of sound, suppressed low intensity sound evoked summating potential (SP) and greatly increased the magnitude of the high intensity sound evoked SP. At 10 microM, the drug suppressed the cubic distortion product otoacoustic emissions (2f(1)-f(2)=8 kHz, f(2)=12 kHz) evoked by both high and low intensity primaries (45, 60, 70 dB SPL). Thapsigargin (10 microM; 30 min) increased the endocochlear potential slightly (5 mV). In chronic animals, thapsigargin (10 microM; 60 min) destroyed many outer hair cells and some inner hair cells, especially in the basal turns. These effects are consistent with the hypothesis that the inhibition of the SERCAs affects the function of the cochlear amplifier and outer hair cells to a greater degree than it affects other functions of the cochlea.

Contractile cochlear frame in the gecko Teratoscincus scincus

It is generally accepted that the cartilaginous frame of the reptilian cochlea has only a passive supportive function. In this study, a ribbon of contractile tissue was revealed within the cartilaginous frame of the cochlea of the gecko Teratoscincus scincus. It consisted of tightly packed cells and received an extensive blood supply. The cytoplasm of the cells was filled with cytoskeletal filaments 5-7 nm thick as revealed by electron microscopy. Isolated tissue permeabilized with Triton X-100 or glycerol reversibly contracted in the presence of ATP. Noradrenaline caused slow relaxation of the freshly isolated tissue placed in artificial perilymph. We suggest that slow motility of the contractile tissue may adjust passive cochlear mechanics to sounds of high intensities.

Structure and innervation of the cochlea

The role of the cochlea is to transduce complex sound waves into electrical neural activity in the auditory nerve. Hair cells of the organ of Corti are the sensory cells of hearing. The inner hair cells perform the transduction and initiate the depolarization of the spiral ganglion neurons. The outer hair cells are accessory sensory cells that enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of the cochlea. Neural feedback loops that bring efferent signals to the outer hair cells assist in sharpening and amplifying the signals. The stria vascularis generates the endocochlear potential and maintains the ionic composition of the endolymph, the fluid in which the apical surface of the hair cells is bathed. The mechanical characteristics of the basilar membrane and its related structures further enhance the frequency selectivity of the auditory transduction mechanism. The tectorial membrane is an extracellular matrix, which provides mass loading on top of the organ of Corti, facilitating deflection of the stereocilia. This review deals with the structure of the normal mature mammalian cochlea and includes recent data on the molecular organization of the main cell types within the cochlea.

Caffeine and ryanodine demonstrate a role for the ryanodine receptor in the organ of Corti

The hypothesis that the release of Ca(2+) from ryanodine receptor activated Ca(2+) stores in vivo can affect the function of the cochlea was tested by examining the effects of caffeine (1-10 mM) and ryanodine (1-333 microM), two drugs that release Ca(2+) from these intracellular stores. The drugs were infused into the perilymph compartment of the guinea pig cochlea while sound (10 kHz) evoked cochlear potentials and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs; 2f(1)-f(2)=8 kHz, f(2)=12 kHz) were monitored. Caffeine significantly suppressed the compound action potential of the auditory nerve (CAP) at low intensity (56 dB SPL; 3.3 and 10 mM) and high intensity (92 dB SPL; 10 mM), increased N1 latency at high and low intensity (3 and 10 mM) and suppressed low intensity summating potential (SP; 10 mM) without an effect on high intensity SP. Ryanodine significantly suppressed the CAP at low intensity (100 and 333 microM) and at high intensity (333 microM), increased N1 latency at low intensity (33, 100 and 333 microM) and at high intensity (333 microM) and suppressed low intensity SP (100 and 333 microM) and increased high intensity SP (333 microM). The cochlear microphonic (CM) evoked by 10 kHz tone bursts was not affected by caffeine at high or low intensity, and ryanodine had no effect on it at low intensity but decreased it at high intensity (10, 33, 100 and 333 microM). In contrast, caffeine (10 mM) and ryanodine (33 and 100 microM) significantly increased CM evoked by l kHz tone bursts and recorded from the round window. Caffeine (10 mM) and ryanodine (100 microM) reversibly suppressed the cubic DPOAEs evoked by low intensity primaries. Overall, low intensity evoked responses were more sensitive and were suppressed to a greater extent by both drugs. This is consistent with the hypothesis that release of Ca(2+) from ryanodine receptor Ca(2+) stores, possibly in outer hair cells and supporting cells, affects the function of the cochlear amplifier.

Distribution of ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases 1 and 2 in rat cochlea

Extracellular ATP and other extracellular nucleotides acting via P2 receptors in the inner ear initiate a wide variety of signalling pathways important for regulation of hearing and balance. Ectonucleotidases are extracellular nucleotide-metabolising enzymes that modulate purinergic signalling in most tissues. Major ectonucleotidases in the cochlea are likely members of the ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) family. In this study, we provide a detailed description of NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 distribution in cochlear tissues using immunocytochemistry. E-NTPDase immunoreactivity was not equally distributed in the tissues bordering scala media. It was observed in the organ of Corti, including sensory and supporting cells, but was notably absent from Reissner's membrane and most of the marginal cells of the stria vascularis. NTPDase1 expression was most prominent in the cochlear vasculature and cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurones, whereas considerable NTPDase2 immunoreactivity was detected in the stria vascularis. Both E-NTPDases were expressed in the cuticular plates of the sensory hair cells and nerve fibres projecting from the synaptic area underneath the inner and outer hair cells. E-NTPDase localisation corresponds to the reported distribution of some P2X receptor subunits (P2X(2) in particular) in sensory, supporting and neural cells and also P2Y receptor distribution in the vasculature and secretory tissues of the lateral wall. The role for E-NTPDases in purinergic signalling is most likely to regulate extracellular nucleoside triphosphate and diphosphate levels and thus provide termination for extracellular ATP signalling that has been linked to control of cochlear blood flow, electrochemical regulation of sound transduction and to neurotransmission in the cochlea.