1
|
Van Houcke J, Mariën V, Zandecki C, Seuntjens E, Ayana R, Arckens L. Modeling Neuroregeneration and Neurorepair in an Aging Context: The Power of a Teleost Model. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:619197. [PMID: 33816468 PMCID: PMC8012675 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.619197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging increases the risk for neurodegenerative disease and brain trauma, both leading to irreversible and multifaceted deficits that impose a clear societal and economic burden onto the growing world population. Despite tremendous research efforts, there are still no treatments available that can fully restore brain function, which would imply neuroregeneration. In the adult mammalian brain, neuroregeneration is naturally limited, even more so in an aging context. In view of the significant influence of aging on (late-onset) neurological disease, it is a critical factor in future research. This review discusses the use of a non-standard gerontology model, the teleost brain, for studying the impact of aging on neurorepair. Teleost fish share a vertebrate physiology with mammals, including mammalian-like aging, but in contrast to mammals have a high capacity for regeneration. Moreover, access to large mutagenesis screens empowers these teleost species to fill the gap between established invertebrate and rodent models. As such, we here highlight opportunities to decode the factor age in relation to neurorepair, and we propose the use of teleost fish, and in particular killifish, to fuel new research in the neuro-gerontology field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jolien Van Houcke
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Valerie Mariën
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Caroline Zandecki
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Eve Seuntjens
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rajagopal Ayana
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lutgarde Arckens
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity and Neuroproteomics, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cogli L, Progida C, Bramato R, Bucci C. Vimentin phosphorylation and assembly are regulated by the small GTPase Rab7a. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2013; 1833:1283-93. [PMID: 23458836 PMCID: PMC3787733 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Intermediate filaments are cytoskeletal elements important for cell architecture. Recently it has been discovered that intermediate filaments are highly dynamic and that they are fundamental for organelle positioning, transport and function thus being an important regulatory component of membrane traffic. We have identified, using the yeast two-hybrid system, vimentin, a class III intermediate filament protein, as a Rab7a interacting protein. Rab7a is a member of the Rab family of small GTPases and it controls vesicular membrane traffic to late endosomes and lysosomes. In addition, Rab7a is important for maturation of phagosomes and autophagic vacuoles. We confirmed the interaction in HeLa cells by co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down experiments, and established that the interaction is direct using bacterially expressed recombinant proteins. Immunofluorescence analysis on HeLa cells indicate that Rab7a-positive vesicles sometimes overlap with vimentin filaments. Overexpression of Rab7a causes an increase in vimentin phosphorylation at different sites and causes redistribution of vimentin in the soluble fraction. Consistently, Rab7a silencing causes an increase of vimentin present in the insoluble fraction (assembled). Also, expression of Charcot–Marie–Tooth 2B-causing Rab7a mutant proteins induces vimentin phosphorylation and increases the amount of vimentin in the soluble fraction. Thus, modulation of expression levels of Rab7a wt or expression of Rab7a mutant proteins changes the assembly of vimentin and its phosphorylation state indicating that Rab7a is important for the regulation of vimentin function. ► We searched for new Rab7a interacting proteins and we found vimentin. ► We demonstrated that Rab7a interacts directly with vimentin. ► Rab7a influences vimentin's phosphorylation and soluble/insoluble ratio. ► Rab7a regulates vimentin organization and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cogli
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Popesku JT, Martyniuk CJ, Trudeau VL. Meta-type analysis of dopaminergic effects on gene expression in the neuroendocrine brain of female goldfish. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2012; 3:130. [PMID: 23130016 PMCID: PMC3487223 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2012.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a major neurotransmitter important for neuroendocrine control and recent studies have described genomic signaling pathways activated and inhibited by DA agonists and antagonists in the goldfish brain. Here we perform a meta-type analysis using microarray datasets from experiments conducted with female goldfish to characterize the gene expression responses that underlie dopaminergic signaling. Sexually mature, pre-spawning [gonadosomatic index (GSI) = 4.5 ± 1.3%] or sexually regressing (GSI = 3 ± 0.4%) female goldfish (15-40 g) injected intraperitoneally with either SKF 38393, LY 171555, SCH 23390, sulpiride, or a combination of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and α-methyl-p-tyrosine. Microarray meta-type analysis identified 268 genes in the telencephalon and hypothalamus as having reciprocal (i.e., opposite between agonism and antagonism/depletion) fold change responses, suggesting that these transcripts are likely targets for DA-mediated regulation. Noteworthy genes included ependymin, vimentin, and aromatase, genes that support the significance of DA in neuronal plasticity and tissue remodeling. Sub-network enrichment analysis (SNEA) was used to identify common gene regulators and binding proteins associated with the differentially expressed genes mediated by DA. SNEA analysis identified gene expression targets that were related to three major categories that included cell signaling (STAT3, SP1, SMAD, Jun/Fos), immune response (IL-6, IL-1β, TNFs, cytokine, NF-κB), and cell proliferation and growth (IGF1, TGFβ1). These gene networks are also known to be associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinsons' disease, well-known to be associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons. This study identifies genes and networks that underlie DA signaling in the vertebrate CNS and provides targets that may be key neuroendocrine regulators. The results provide a foundation for future work on dopaminergic regulation of gene expression in fish model systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jason T. Popesku
- Centre for Advanced Research in Environmental Genomics, Department of Biology, University of OttawaOttawa, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Jason T. Popesku, Centre for Advanced Research in Environmental Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5. e-mail: ; Vance L. Trudeau, Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Room 160, Gendron Hall, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5. e-mail:
| | - Christopher J. Martyniuk
- Canadian Rivers Institute and Department of Biology, University of New BrunswickSaint John, NB, Canada
| | - Vance L. Trudeau
- Centre for Advanced Research in Environmental Genomics, Department of Biology, University of OttawaOttawa, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Jason T. Popesku, Centre for Advanced Research in Environmental Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5. e-mail: ; Vance L. Trudeau, Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Room 160, Gendron Hall, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5. e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Teleost fish as a model system to study successful regeneration of the central nervous system. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 367:193-233. [PMID: 23239273 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury are devastating conditions that may result in death or long-term disability. A promising strategy for the development of effective cell replacement therapies involves the study of regeneration-competent organisms. Among this group, teleost fish are distinguished by their excellent potential to regenerate nervous tissue and to regain function after injury to the central nervous system. In this chapter, we summarize our current understanding of the cellular processes that mediate this regenerative potential, and we show that several of these processes are shared with the normal development of the intact central nervous system; we describe how the spontaneous self-repair of the teleostean central nervous system leads to functional recovery, at physiological and behavioral levels; we discuss the possible function of molecular factors associated with the degenerative and regenerative processes after injury; and, finally, we speculate on evolutionary aspects of adult neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration, and on how a better understanding of these aspects could catalyze the development of therapeutic strategies to overcome the regenerative limits of the mammalian CNS.
Collapse
|
5
|
Effect of temperature on spinal cord regeneration in the weakly electric fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2010; 196:359-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s00359-010-0521-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Revised: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
6
|
Sîrbulescu RF, Ilieş I, Zupanc GKH. Structural and functional regeneration after spinal cord injury in the weakly electric teleost fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2009; 195:699-714. [PMID: 19430939 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-009-0445-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Revised: 04/15/2009] [Accepted: 04/18/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to mammals, teleost fish exhibit an enormous potential to regenerate adult spinal cord tissue after injury. However, the mechanisms mediating this ability are largely unknown. Here, we analyzed the major processes underlying structural and functional regeneration after amputation of the caudal portion of the spinal cord in Apteronotus leptorhynchus, a weakly electric teleost. After a transient wave of apoptotic cell death, cell proliferation started to increase 5 days after the lesion and persisted at high levels for at least 50 days. New cells differentiated into neurons, glia, and ependymal cells. Retrograde tract tracing revealed axonal re-growth and innervation of the regenerate. Functional regeneration was demonstrated by recovery of the amplitude of the electric organ discharge, a behavior generated by spinal motoneurons. Computer simulations indicated that the observed rates of apoptotic cell death and cell proliferation can adequately explain the re-growth of the spinal cord.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruxandra F Sîrbulescu
- School of Engineering and Science, Jacobs University Bremen, P.O. Box 750 561, 28725, Bremen, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Santos EM, Kille P, Workman VL, Paull GC, Tyler CR. Sexually dimorphic gene expression in the brains of mature zebrafish. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2008; 149:314-24. [PMID: 18289901 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2007] [Revised: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 01/11/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The molecular signalling pathways mediating sexual dimorphism have principally been investigated in the gonads, and to a lesser extent in other organs. The brain plays a central role in coordinating sexual function, including the regulation of reproductive development, maturation and sexual behaviour in both sexes. In this study, we investigated sex-related differences in gene expression in the brains of breeding zebrafish (Danio rerio) to establish a greater understanding of the sex-specific physiology of the brain in lower vertebrates. The brain transcriptomic profiles of males and females were interrogated to identify the genes showing sexually dimorphic gene expression. 42 genes were differentially expressed between the sexes, from which 18 genes were over-expressed in males and 24 genes were over-expressed in females. In males, these included deiodinase, iodothyronine, type II and ribosomal protein S8, and in females, superoxide dismutase [Cu-Zn], sprouty-4, frizzled 10 and testis enhanced gene transcript. Estrogen responsive elements were found in the regulatory regions for 3 genes over-expressed in males and 7 genes over-expressed in females. We have demonstrated the existence of dimorphic patterns of gene expression in the brain of a sexually mature, non-mammalian, vertebrate model, with implications for studies into reproduction and chemical disruption of brain function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eduarda M Santos
- School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zupanc MM, Wellbrock UM, Zupanc GKH. Proteome analysis identifies novel protein candidates involved in regeneration of the cerebellum of teleost fish. Proteomics 2006; 6:677-96. [PMID: 16372261 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200500167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to mammals, adult teleost fish exhibit an enormous potential to regenerate neuronal tissue after injuries to the CNS. By combining a well-defined cerebellar lesion paradigm with differential proteome analysis at a post-lesion survival time of 3 days, we screened for protein candidates involved in repair of the fish brain. Out of nearly 900 protein spots detected on 2-D gels, spot intensity was significantly increased at least twofold in 30 spots and decreased to at least half the intensity of control tissue in 23 spots. The proteins associated with 24 of the spots were identified by PMF and MS/MS fragmentation. The cellular localization and the spatiotemporal patterns of two of these proteins, beta-actin and beta-tubulin, were further characterized through immunohistochemistry. Comparison of the observed changes in protein abundance with the previously characterized events underlying regeneration of the cerebellum suggests that the proteins identified are especially involved in cellular proliferation and survival, as well as axonal sprouting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marianne M Zupanc
- School of Engineering and Science, International University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zupanc GKH. Neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the adult fish brain. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2006; 192:649-70. [PMID: 16463148 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-006-0104-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2005] [Revised: 11/02/2005] [Accepted: 12/26/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fish are distinctive in their enormous potential to continuously produce new neurons in the adult brain, whereas in mammals adult neurogenesis is restricted to the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus. In fish new neurons are not only generated in structures homologous to those two regions, but also in dozens of other brain areas. In some regions of the fish brain, such as the optic tectum, the new cells remain near the proliferation zones in the course of their further development. In others, as in most subdivisions of the cerebellum, they migrate, often guided by radial glial fibers, to specific target areas. Approximately 50% of the young cells undergo apoptotic cell death, whereas the others survive for the rest of the fish's life. A large number of the surviving cells differentiate into neurons. Two key factors enabling highly efficient brain repair in fish after injuries involve the elimination of damaged cells by apoptosis (instead of necrosis, the dominant type of cell death in mammals) and the replacement of cells lost to injury by newly generated ones. Proteome analysis has suggested well over 100 proteins, including two dozen identified ones, to be involved in the individual steps of this phenomenon of neuronal regeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G K H Zupanc
- School of Engineering and Science, International University Bremen, P.O. Box 750 561, 28725 Bremen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Arochena M, Anadón R, Díaz-Regueira SM. Development of vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactivities in the brain of gray mullet (Chelon labrosus), an advanced teleost. J Comp Neurol 2004; 469:413-36. [PMID: 14730591 DOI: 10.1002/cne.11021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies in teleosts have revealed the presence of the intermediate filaments vimentin (Vim) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in glial cells of the spinal cord and/or some brain regions, but there is no comprehensive study of their distribution and developmental changes in fishes. Here, the distribution of Vim and GFAP immunoreactivities was studied in the brain of larvae, juveniles, and adults of an advanced teleost, the gray mullet (Chelon labrosus). A different sequence of appearance was observed for expression of these proteins: Vim levels decreased with age, whereas GFAP increased. In general, both immunoreactivities were expressed early in perikarya and endfeet of ependymocytes (tanycytes), whereas expression in radial processes appeared later. In large larvae, the similar expression patterns of Vim and GFAP suggest that some of these glial cells contain both proteins. Subependymal radial glia cells were observed mainly in the optic tectum, exhibiting Vim and GFAP immunoreactivity. The only immunoreactive cells with astrocyte-like morphology were observed in the optic chiasm of the adult, and they were positive for both GFAP and Vim. The perivascular processes of glial cells showed a different distribution of Vim and GFAP during development and had a caudorostral sequence of appearance of immunoreactivities similar to that observed for ependymal and radial glia cells. Several circumventricular organs (the organon vasculosum hypothalami, saccus vasculosus, and area postrema) exhibited highly specialized Vim- and/or GFAP-expressing glial cells. The glial cells of the midline septa of several brain regions were also Vim and/or GFAP immunoreactive. In the adult brain, tanycytes retain Vim expression in several brain regions. As in other vertebrates, the regions with Vim-immunoreactive ventricular and midline glia may represent areas with the capability of plasticity and regeneration in adult brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes Arochena
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of A Coruña, 15071-A Coruña, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zupanc GKH, Clint SC, Takimoto N, Hughes ATL, Wellbrock UM, Meissner D. Spatio-temporal distribution of microglia/macrophages during regeneration in the cerebellum of adult teleost fish, Apteronotus leptorhynchus: a quantitative analysis. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2003; 62:31-42. [PMID: 12907858 DOI: 10.1159/000071958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2002] [Accepted: 04/04/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to mammals, adult teleost fish exhibit an enormous capacity to replace damaged neurons with newly generated ones after injuries in the central nervous system. In the present study, the role of microglia/macrophages, identified by tomato lectin binding, was examined in this process of neuronal regeneration in the corpus cerebelli of the teleost fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus. In the intact corpus cerebelli, or after short survival times following application of a mechanical lesion to this cerebellar subdivision, microglia/macrophages were virtually absent. Conversely, approximately 3 days after application of the lesion, the areal density of microglia/macrophages started to increase at and near the lesion site in the ipsilateral hemisphere, as well as in the contralateral hemisphere, and reached maximum levels at approximately 10 days post lesion. The density remained elevated until it reached background levels approximately one month after the injury. By comparing the time course of the appearance of microglia/macrophages with that of other regenerative events occurring within the first few weeks of wound healing in this model system, we hypothesize that one possible function of microglia/macrophages might be to remove debris of cells that have undergone apoptotic cell death at the lesion site.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Günther K H Zupanc
- School of Engineering and Science, International University Bremen, Bremen, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Persistence of radial glia within the adult central nervous system is a widespread phenomenon among fish. Based on a series of studies in the teleost species Apteronotus leptorhynchus, we propose that one function of this persistence is the involvement of radial glia in adult neurogenesis, i.e., the generation and further development of new neurons in the adult central nervous system. In particular, evidence has been obtained for the involvement of radial glia in the guidance of migrating young neurons in both the intact and the regenerating brain; for a possible role as precursor cells from which new neurons arise; and for its role as a source of trophic substances promoting the generation, differentiation, and/or survival of new neurons. These functions contribute not only to the potential of the intact brain to generate new neurons continuously, and of the injured brain to replace damaged cells by newly generated ones, but they also provide an essential part of the cellular substrate of behavioral plasticity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Günther K H Zupanc
- School of Engineering and Science, International University Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Sorcha C Clint
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
The physiological role of basal laminae (BL) and connective tissue (meninges and their projections) in the adult brain is unknown. We recently described novel forms of BL, termed fractones, in the most neurogenic zone of the adult brain, the subependymal layer (SEL) of the lateral ventricle. Here, we investigated the organization of BL throughout the hypothalamus, using confocal and electron microscopy. New types of BL were identified. First, fractones, similar to those found in the lateral ventricle wall, were regularly arranged along the walls of the third ventricle. Fractones consisted of labyrinthine BL projecting from SEL blood vessels to terminate immediately beneath the ependyma. Numerous processes of astrocytes and of microglial cells directly contacted fractones. Second, another form of BL projection, termed anastomotic BL, was found between capillaries in dense capillary beds. The anastomotic BL enclosed extraparenchymal cells that networked with the perivascular cells coursing in the sheaths of adjacent blood vessels. Vimentin immunoreactivity was often detected in the anastomotic BL. In addition, the anastomotic BL overlying macrophages contained numerous fibrils of collagen. We also found that the BL located at the pial surface formed labyrinthine tube-like structures enclosing numerous fibroblast and astrocyte endfeet, with pouches of collagen fibrils at the interface between the two cell types. We suggest that cytokines and growth factors produced by connective tissue cells might concentrate in BL, where their interactions with extracellular matrix proteins might contribute to their effects on the overlying neural tissue, promoting cytogenesis and morphological changes and participating in neuroendocrine regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Mercier
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|