Facial nerve lesion response; strain differences but no involvement of IFN-gamma, STAT4 or STAT6

The Time Course of MHC-I Expression in C57BL/6J and A/J Mice Correlates with the Degree of Retrograde Gliosis in the Spinal Cord following Sciatic Nerve Crush

The pleiotropic role of the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) reflects the close association between the nervous and immune systems. In turn, MHC-I upregulation postinjury is associated with a better regenerative outcome in isogenic mice following peripheral nerve damage. In the present work, we compared the time course of neuronal, glial, and sensorimotor recovery (1, 3, 5, 7, and 28 days after lesion—dal) following unilateral sciatic nerve crush in A/J and C57BL/6J mice. The A/J strain showed higher expression of MHC-I (7 dal, ** p < 0.01), Iba-1 (microglial reaction, 7 dal, *** p < 0.001), and GFAP (astrogliosis, 5 dal, * p < 0.05) than the C57BL/6J counterpart. Synaptic coverage (synaptophysin) was equivalent in both strains over time. In addition, mRNA expression of microdissected spinal motoneurons revealed an increase in cytoskeleton-associated molecules (cofilin, shp2, and crmp2, * p < 0.05), but not trkB, in C57BL/6J mice. Gait recovery, studied by the sciatic functional index, was faster in the A/J strain, despite the equivalent results of C57BL/6J at 28 days after injury. A similar recovery was also seen for the nociceptive threshold (von Frey test). Interestingly, when evaluating proprioceptive recovery, C57BL/6J animals showed an enlarged base of support, indicating abnormal ambulation postinjury. Overall, the present results reinforce the role of MHC-I expression in the plasticity of the nervous system following axotomy, which in turn correlates with the variable recovery capacity among strains of mice.

Absence of IFNγ expression induces neuronal degeneration in the spinal cord of adult mice

BACKGROUND

Interferon gamma (IFNγ) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, which may be up-regulated after trauma to the peripheral or central nervous system. Such changes include reactive gliosis and synaptic plasticity that are considered important responses to the proper regenerative response after injury. Also, IFNγ is involved in the upregulation of the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC class I), which has recently been shown to play an important role in the synaptic plasticity process following axotomy. There is also evidence that IFNγ may interfere in the differentiation and survival of neuronal cells. However, little is known about the effects of IFNγ absence on spinal cord neurons after injury.

METHODS

We performed a unilateral sciatic nerve transection injury in C57BL/6J (wild type) and IFNγ-KO (mutant) mice and studied motoneuron morphology using light and electron microscopy. One week after the lesion, mice from both strains were sacrificed and had their lumbar spinal cords processed for histochemistry (n = 5 each group) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM, n = 5 each group). Spinal cord sections from non-lesioned animals were also used to investigate neuronal survival and the presence of apoptosis with TUNEL and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

We find that presumed motoneurons in the lower lumbar ventral horn exhibited a smaller soma size in the IFNγ-KO series, regardless of nerve lesion. In plastic embedded sections stained with toluidine blue, the IFNγ-KO mice demonstrated a greater proportion of degenerating neurons in the ventral horn when compared to the control series (p < 0.05). Apoptotic death is suggested based on TUNEL and caspase 3 immunostaining. A sciatic nerve axotomy did not further aggravate the neuronal loss. The cellular changes were supported by electron microscopy, which demonstrated ventral horn neurons exhibiting intracellular vacuoles as well as degenerating nuclei and cytoplasm in the IFNγ-KO mice. Adjacent glial cells showed features suggestive of phagocytosis. Additional ultrastructural studies showed a decreased number of pre-synaptic terminals apposing to motoneurons in mutant mice. Nevertheless, no statistical difference regarding the input covering could be detected among the studied strains.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, these results suggest that IFNγ may be neuroprotective and its absence results in neuronal death, which is not further increased by peripheral axotomy.

Genetic regulation of microglia activation, complement expression, and neurodegeneration in a rat model of traumatic brain injury

Secondary brain damage following traumatic brain injury in part depends on neuroinflammation, a process where genetic factors may play an important role. We examined the response to a standardized cortical contusion in two different inbred rat strains, Dark Agouti (DA) and Piebald Virol Glaxo (PVG). Both are well characterized in models of autoimmune neuroinflammation, where DA is susceptible and PVG resistant. We found that infiltration of polymorphonuclear granulocytes (PMN) at 3-day postinjury was more pronounced in PVG. DA was more infiltrated by T cells at 3-day postinjury, showed an enhanced glial activation at 7-day postinjury and higher expression of C3 complement at 7-day postinjury. Neurodegeneration, assessed by Fluoro-Jade, was also more pronounced in the DA strain at 30-day postinjury. These results demonstrate differences in the response to cortical contusion injury attributable to genetic influences and suggest a link between injury-induced inflammation and neurodegeneration. Genetic factors that regulate inflammation elicited by brain trauma may be important for the development of secondary brain damage.

Differential nerve injury-induced expression of MHC class II in the mouse correlates to genetic variability in the type I promoter of C2ta

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II is of critical importance for the induction of immune responses. Levels of MHC class II in the nervous system are normally low, but expression is up-regulated in many disease conditions. In rat and human, variation in the MHC class II transactivator gene (C2ta) is associated with differential expression of MHC class II and susceptibility to autoimmune disease. Here we have characterized the response to facial nerve transection in 7 inbred mouse strains (C57BL/6J, DBA/2J, 129X1/SvJ, BALB/cJ, SJL/J, CBA/J, and NOD). The results demonstrate differences in expression of C2ta and markers for MHC class I and II expression, glial activation, and T cell infiltration. Expression levels of C2ta and Cd74 followed similar patterns, in contrast to MHC class I and markers of glial activation. The regulatory region of the C2ta gene was subsequently sequenced in the four strains (C57BL/6/J, DBA/2J, SJL/J and 129X1/SvJ) that represented the phenotypical extremes with regard to C2ta/Cd74 expression. We found 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms in the type I (pI) and type III (pIII) promoters of C2ta, respectively. Higher expression of pI in 129X1/SvJ correlated with the pI haplotype specific for this strain. Furthermore, congenic strains carrying the 129X1/SvJ C2ta allele on B6 background displayed significantly higher C2ta and Cd74 expression compared to parental controls. We conclude that genetic polymorphisms in the type I promoter of C2ta regulates differential expression of MHC class II, but not MHC class I, Cd3 and other markers of glial activation.

MHC I expression and synaptic plasticity in different mice strains after axotomy

The success of axonal regeneration has been attributed to a co-operation between the severed neurons and the surrounding environment, including non-neuronal cells and the extracellular matrix. Important differences regarding the regeneration potential after injury have been described among inbred mice strains. To date, there is only limited knowledge of how such variation can be linked with the genetic background. It has recently been demonstrated that MHC class I molecules have an influence on the spinal cord synaptic plasticity elicited by a peripheral lesion, and the regenerative capacity following such a lesion. Therefore, in the present work we compared the MHC I expression after axotomy in three isogenic mice strains, namely C57BL/6J, Balb/cJ, and A/J, and investigated the fine ultrastructure of the synaptic elimination process that follows such lesion. The results show that C57BL/6J mice, that have a comparatively poor regenerative potential, display a lower upregulation of MHC I in the spinal cord, coupled with a slower synaptic stripping. On the other hand, A/J mice, which have been shown to have a stronger axonal regrowth potential, showed a clear upregulation of MHC I and a sharp acute loss of afferents, at 1 week after lesion. Our results suggest that a more prominent expression of MHC I in the first week after lesion may positively influence the regenerative outcome associated with a more effective axonal regrowth.

Bax-dependent and -independent death of motoneurons after facial nerve injury in adult mice

Nerve injury-induced neuronal death may occur after accidental trauma or nerve inflammation. Although the response to facial root avulsion has been examined in rodent models, there are conflicting results as to whether motoneuron (MN) death is mediated by apoptosis or necrosis. We examined the response of MNs and proximal nerves after facial nerve avulsion in adult mice. Following facial nerve avulsion in 4-5-week-old mice, we observed a progressive reduction of MNs such that by 4 weeks less than 10% of avulsed MNs remained compared with the control side. The profile of MN degeneration was distinct from axotomy-induced responses. For example, the onset of MN death was more rapid, and the extent of MN loss was greater compared with axotomy. Furthermore, the degeneration of oligodendrocytes and the activation of microglia were increased in the proximal nerve after avulsion. Ultrastructural observations suggested that root avulsion mainly induces non-apoptotic neuronal death, although a small subset of neurons appeared to die via apoptosis. To evaluate the contribution of apoptotic death, we evaluated MN responses in Bax-knockout (KO) mice in which neurons are rescued from apoptotic death. Surprisingly, although the majority of Bax-KO mice exhibited only a moderate MN loss after avulsion, a subset of Bax-KO mice (25%) exhibited extensive MN death and injury-induced changes in the nerve that were indistinguishable from events in wild-type littermates. These results suggest that both Bax-dependent and -independent forms of cell death are evoked by root avulsion, and that programmed cell death may be involved in triggering a robust necrotic response.

Recovery from spinal cord injury in tumor necrosis factor-alpha, signal transducers and activators of transcription 4 and signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 null mice

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha is a central cytokine involved in the regulation of the innate immune response. Signal transducers and activators of transcription 4 and signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 are second messengers mediating the Th1 and Th2-specific immune responses, respectively. We studied the outcome of spinal cord injury with respect to the locomotion and axonal regeneration in tumor necrosis factor-alpha, signal transducers and activators of transcription 4 and signal transducers and activators of transcription 6 knockout mice. Locomotor behavior after injury differed between mouse strains, but not between wild-type and the knockout genotypes of the same strain. Regeneration of descending tracts, assessed by fluorogold/fluororuby retrograde double-labeling, however, appeared hampered by Th2 deficiency.

Astrocyte reactivity influences the number of presynaptic terminals apposed to spinal motoneurons after axotomy

Although synaptic plasticity is a widespread phenomenon, the underlying mechanisms leading to its occurrence are virtually unknown. In this sense, glial cells, especially astrocytes, may have a role in network changes of the nervous system, influencing the retraction of boutons as well as providing a proper perisynaptic environment, thereby affecting the replacement of inputs. Interestingly, the glial reaction does vary between strains of rats and mice. In this sense, we present evidence that C57BL/6J and A/J isogenic mice present different astrocyte reactivity after a peripheral lesion in vivo as well as in vitro, by analyzing primary cell cultures. Such a difference in the glial reaction has a direct influence on in vivo number of pre-synaptic terminals and on in vitro synaptogenesis.

Both positive and negative factors regulate gene expression following chronic facial nerve resection

Previously, we reported that following a chronic nerve resection, removal of the neuroma reversed the atrophy, increased the number of countable motoneurons and resulted in the re-expression of GAP-43 and alpha tubulin mRNA. In the present study, we questioned whether this response was due to the removal of the neuroma, or a result of factors such as neurotrophins, produced at the injury site. To test this hypothesis, 10 weeks after axotomy, the axonal transport blocker colchicine or, glial derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) was injected proximal to the neuroma. The injection of GDNF or colchicine elicited an increase in motoneuron size and in GAP-43, but not alpha tubulin, mRNA. These data suggest that in addition to factors produced at the injury site, the neuroma acts as a source of target-like repressive signals that when removed results in an increase in gene expression and motoneuron size. To analyze the regenerative potential of chronically resected motoneurons, mice without a previous nerve injury and mice with a chronic resection received a pre-degenerated segment of sciatic nerve attached to the proximal facial nerve stump. Axons from both the chronic and acute groups grew into the grafts, however, significantly more retrogradely labeled motoneurons were counted in the acute group compared to the chronic resection group. No difference in motoneuron cell size was observed between the two groups of regenerated neurons. Therefore, despite severe atrophy, many of the surviving mouse facial motoneurons retain the propensity to extend their axons when provided with the appropriate environment.

MHC class I, beta2 microglobulin, and the INF-gamma receptor are upregulated in aged motoneurons

During aging, spinal cord motoneurons show characteristic changes including the loss of afferent boutons, a selective process that associates with gliosis and behavioral motor impairment. Evidence suggests that the major histocompatibility complex Class I (MHC I) system may be involved in synaptic plasticity of neurons during development and regeneration. In search of a mechanism governing senescent changes in synaptic connectivity, we report evidence for increased expression of MHC I and beta2 microglobulin (beta2M) in motoneurons and glial-like profiles of 30-month-old rats. The regulatory signal(s) for MHC I expression in normal neurons remains unresolved but among tentative molecules are cytokines such as interferon-gamma (INF-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). Interestingly, aged motoneurons, overlapping with those showing increased levels of MHC I, contained increased levels of INF-gamma receptor message. INF-gamma mRNA was detected at low levels in most (8/9) of the aged spinal cords but only infrequently (2/9) in young adult spinal cords; however, the cellular localization of INF-gamma mRNA could not be determined. Our data also indicates that TNF-alpha is upregulated in the senescent spinal cord but that TNF-alpha immunoreactive protein does not associate with motoneurons. We report evidence for an increased expression of MHC I and beta2M in senescent spinal motoneurons and discuss the possibility that this regulation associates with INF-gamma or changes in neurotrophin signaling and neuron activity in senescence.

A common vaccine for fighting neurodegenerative disorders: recharging immunity for homeostasis

Neurodegenerative conditions share common primary risk factors and mediators of disease progression. Because many degenerative disorders are age related, deteriorating immunity in aging patients might impose additional risk. Adaptive (T-cell-mediated) immunity is a defense mechanism that instructs microglia to fight off and clear away self-derived enemies. Such adaptive immunity can be boosted, without risking the development of autoimmune disease, by injecting weak agonists of self-antigens or by weakening the suppressive CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. If widely cross-reactive, the agonist might effectively counteract a variety of neurodegenerative disorders. Boosting of relevant T cells by vaccination could thus "recharge" a deteriorating immune system that has to contend with an increasing number of risk factors.

Axonal reinjury reveals the survival and re-expression of regeneration-associated genes in chronically axotomized adult mouse motoneurons

Recently, we reported that chronically axotomized rubrospinal neurons survive for up to 1 year in an atrophied state. This finding contrasted previous work suggesting the death of up to 50% of the neurons over time. In the adult mouse, the majority of facial motoneurons appear to be lost as a result of chronic nerve resection. Here, we sought to determine if chronically resected adult mouse facial motoneurons, like rubrospinal neurons, survive in an atrophied state. To test this hypothesis, we asked whether a second nerve injury, 10 weeks after an initial nerve resection, could stimulate a regenerative cell body response. After chronic resection (10 weeks), mouse facial motoneurons underwent atrophy resulting in a loss of countable neuronal cell bodies. In addition, the motoneurons failed to maintain their initial increase in expression of GAP-43 and alpha-tubulin mRNA. Reinjury of 10-week chronically resected facial motoneurons by the removal of the neuroma reversed the atrophy of the cell bodies and increased the percentage of identifiable cell bodies from 36% of contralateral to 79% in C57BL/6-C3H mice and from 28% of contralateral to 40% in Balb/c mice. Moreover, the reinjured motoneurons displayed an increase in GAP-43 and alpha-tubulin mRNA expression. The results of this study indicate that a second axon injury stimulates regenerative cell body responses in chronically resected mouse facial motoneurons and suggest previous studies using this model may have overestimated the number of dying motoneurons.

The facial nerve axotomy model

Experimental models such as the facial nerve axotomy paradigm in rodents allow the systematic and detailed study of the response of neurones and their microenvironment to various types of challenges. Well-studied experimental examples include peripheral nerve trauma, the retrograde axonal transport of neurotoxins and locally enhanced inflammation following the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in combination with axotomy. These studies have led to novel insights into the regeneration programme of the motoneurone, the role of microglia and astrocytes in synaptic plasticity and the biology of glial cells. Importantly, many of the findings obtained have proven to be valid in other functional systems and even across species barriers. In particular, microglial expression of major histocompatibility complex molecules has been found to occur in response to various types of neuronal damage and is now regarded as a characteristic component of "glial inflammation". It is found in the context of numerous neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. The detachment of afferent axonal endings from the surface membrane of regenerating motoneurones and their subsequent displacement by microglia ("synaptic stripping") and long-lasting insulation by astrocytes have also been confirmed in humans. The medical implications of these findings are significant. Also, the facial nerve system of rats and mice has become the best studied and most widely used test system for the evaluation of neurotrophic factors.

Microglial major histocompatibility complex glycoprotein-1 in the axotomized facial motor nucleus: regulation and role of tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2

Presentation of antigen is key to the development of the immune response, mediated by association of antigen with major histocompatibility complex glycoproteins abbreviated as MHC1 and MHC2. In the current study, we examined the regulation of MHC1 in the brain after facial axotomy. The normal facial motor nucleus showed no immunoreactivity for MHC1 (MHC1-IR). Transection of the facial nerve led to a strong and selective up-regulation of MHC1-IR on the microglia in the affected nucleus, beginning at day 2 and reaching a maximum 14 days after axotomy, coinciding with a peak influx of the T lymphocytes that express CD8, the lymphocyte coreceptor for MHC1. Specificity of the MHC1 staining was confirmed in beta2-microglobulin-deficient mice, which lack normal cell surface MHC1-IR. MHC1-IR was particularly strong on phagocytic microglia, induced by delayed neuronal cell death, and correlated with the induction of mRNA for tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta, and interferon-gamma and the influx of T lymphocytes. Mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (scid), lacking T and B cells, showed an increase in the number of MHC1-positive nodules but no significant effect on overall MHC1-IR. Transgenic deletion of the IL1 receptor type I, or the interferon-gamma receptor type 1 subunit, did not affect the microglial MHC1-IR. However, a combined deletion of TNF receptors 1 and 2 (TNFR1&2-KO) led to a decrease in microglial MHC1-IR and to a striking absence of the phagocytic microglial nodules. Deletion of TNFR2 (p75) did not have an effect; deletion of TNFR1 (p55) reduced the diffuse microglial staining for MHC1-IR but did not abolish the MHC1(+) microglial nodules. In summary, neural injury leads to the induction of MHC1-IR on the activated, phagocytic microglia. This induction of MHC1 precedes the interaction with the immune system, at least in the facial motor nucleus model. Finally, the impaired induction of these molecules, up to now, only in the TNFR-deficient mice underscores the central role of TNF in the immune activation of the injured nervous system.