Erythrocyte transfusion causes immunosuppression after total hip replacement

Outcomes, Microbiology and Antimicrobial Usage in Pressure Ulcer-Related Pelvic Osteomyelitis: Messages for Clinical Practice

Introduction: Pressure ulcer-related pelvic osteomyelitis is a relatively under-studied entity in the field of bone infection. We sought to add to the limited evidence base for managing this challenging syndrome.

Methods: Cases were identified retrospectively from a surgical database and hospital discharge codes at a U.K. tertiary centre (2009-2018). Risk factors associated with outcomes were analysed by logistic regression.

Results: We identified 35 patients (mean age 57.4 years), 69% managed with a combined medical and surgical approach, with mean follow-up of 3.7 years from index admission. Treatment failure (requiring further surgery or intravenous antimicrobials) occurred in 71% and eventual ulcer healing in 36%. One-year mortality was 23%. Lack of formal care support on discharge, post-traumatic (asensate) neurological deficit and index CRP (>184mg/L) were associated with treatment failure (p=0.001). Age (>59.5 years), lack of attempted soft tissue coverage, haemoglobin (<111g/L) and albumin (<25g/L) were associated with non-healing ulcers (p=0.003). Superficial wound swabs had low sensitivity and specificity compared to deep bone microbiology. Infection (based on deep bone microbiology from 46 infection episodes) was usually polymicrobial (87%), commonly involving S. aureus, Enterococci, GNB and anaerobes. Antimicrobial duration ranged from 0-103 days (mean 54) and was not associated with subsequent treatment failure.

Conclusions: Attempted soft tissue coverage after surgical debridement, ensuring appropriate support for personal care after discharge and nutritional optimisation could improve outcomes. Superficial wound swabs are uninformative and deep bone sampling should be pursued. Long antimicrobial courses do not improve outcomes. Clinicians should engage patients in anticipatory care planning.

Results of an anaemia treatment protocol complementary to blood transfusion in elderly patients with hip fracture

BACKGROUND

Anaemia is a very common condition in elderly patients with hip fracture. The side effects of blood transfusions are well known, and further research on potential alternative therapies is needed.

OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN

A non-controlled descriptive study, conducted on 138 patients admitted for hip fracture, aimed at analysing the effects of an anaemia treatment protocol adjunctive to transfusion, based on the use of supra-physiological doses of intravenous iron and erythropoietin (IS/EPOS). The variables collected were, medical history, physical and cognitive status prior to fracture, as well as the need of blood products, medical complications during admission and their functional outcome at three and six months after the fracture were evaluated. Transfusion rates were compared with a historical control group when the only treatment for acute anaemia was transfusion (2011).

RESULTS

Almost half (63, 48%) of the patients received blood transfusion, with (91,70%) IS/EPOD. Intravenous iron did not reduce the percentage of transfused patients (56% vs. 44%), but it did reduce the number of blood units required (0.7 units less in IS/EPO group). Patients who required transfusion had a longer hospital stay, (1.7 days; 13.2 vs. 11.5; p<0.005). Patients who received IS had better functional recovery assessed with Barthel index and the Functional Ambulation Categories (FAC scale) at 3 and 6 months after the fracture. Patients with malnutrition or subtrochanteric fracture needed more tabletransfusions (p<0.005). Functional recovery at 3 and 6 months after fracture was better in patients who received intravenous iron. Neither blood transfusions nor intravenous iron were associated with infectious complications or increased mortality. The patient series of this study was compared with a group of patients with hip fracture and similar characteristics seen in 2011, before intravenous iron was available, revealing a 17% reduction in blood transfusion needs (p<0.005).

CONCLUSION

The use of intravenous iron in elderly patients with hip fracture may help to reduce the number of blood units needed for the treatment of anaemia, although a causal relationship cannot be established due to not having a control group. Transfusions were associated with longer hospital stay in elderly patients with hip fracture.

Innate immunity recovers earlier than acquired immunity during severe postoperative immunosuppression

Background: Postoperative immune suppression, particularly a loss of cell-mediated immunity, is commonly seen after surgery and is associated with worse outcome, i.e. delayed wound healing, infections, sepsis, multiple-organ failure and cancer recurrence. However, the recovery of immune cells focusing on differences between innate and acquired immunity during severe postoperative immunosuppression is not investigated. Methods: In this retrospective randomized controlled trial (RCT) subgroup analysis, 10 postoperatively immune suppressed patients after esophageal or pancreatic resection were analyzed. Innate and acquired immune cells, the expression of human leukocyte antigen-D related on monocytes (mHLA-DR), lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced monocytic TNF-α and IL-10 secretion ex vivo, Concanavalin A (Con A)-induced IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 release were measured preoperatively (od) until day 5 after surgery (pod5). Recovery of immune cells was defined by a significant decrease respectively increase after a significant postoperative alteration. Statistical analyses were performed using nonparametric statistical procedures. Results: Postoperative alterations of innate immune cells recovered on pod2 (eosinophils), pod3 (neutrophils) and pod5 (mHLA-DR, monocytic TNF-α and IL-10 secretion), whereas alterations of acquired immune cells (lymphocytes, T cells, T helper cells, and cytotoxic T cells) did not recover until pod5. Peripheral blood T cells showed an impaired production of the T helper (Th) 1 cytokine IFN-γ upon Con A stimulation on pod1, while Th2 specific cytokine release did not change until pod5.Conclusions: Innate immunity recovered earlier than acquired immunity during severe postoperative immunosuppression. Furthermore, we found a more anti- than pro-inflammatory T cell function on the first day after surgery, while T cell counts decreased.

Despite Inflammation, Supplemented Essential Amino Acids May Improve Circulating Levels of Albumin and Haemoglobin in Patients after Hip Fractures

Essential amino acids (EAAs) are nutritional substrates that promote body protein synthesis; thus we hypothesised that their supplementation may improve circulating albumin (Alb) and haemoglobin (Hb) in rehabilitative elderly patients following hip fractures (HF). Out of the 145 HF patients originally enrolled in our study, 112 completed the protocol. These subjects were divided into two randomised groups, each containing 56 patients. For a period of two months, one group (age 81.4 ± 8.1 years; male/female 27/29) received a placebo, and the other (age 83.1 ± 7.5 years; male/female 25/31) received 4 + 4 g/day oral EAAs. At admission, the prevalence of both hypoAlb (<3.5 g/dL) and hypoHb (<13 g/dL male, <12 g/dL female) was similar in the placebo group (64.3% hypoAlb, 66% hypoHb) and the treated group of patients (73.2% hypoAlb, 67.8% hypoHb). At discharge, however, the prevalence of hypoAlb had reduced more in EAAs than in placebo subjects (31.7% in EAAs vs. 77.8% in placebo; p < 0.001). There was a 34.2% reduction of anaemia in hypoHb in EAA subjects and 18.9% in placebo subjects, but the difference was not statistically significant. Oral supplementation of EAAs improves hypoAlb and, to a lesser extent, Hb in elderly rehabilitative subjects with hip fractures. Anaemia was reduced in more than one third of patients, which, despite not being statistically significant, may be clinically relevant.

Glycine Does Not Add to the Beneficial Effects of Perioperative Oral Immune-Enhancing Nutrition Supplements in High-Risk Cardiac Surgery Patients

BACKGROUND

Elderly patients and patients with a poor cardiac function have increased morbidity rates when undergoing cardiac surgery. The aim of this study was to determine whether addition of glycine to a standard preoperative oral immune-enhancing nutrition supplement (OIENS) improves outcome. Glycine-enriched OIENS was compared with 2 formulas: standard OIENS and control.

METHODS

In this double-blind, 3-armed study, patients scheduled to undergo cardiac surgery with the use of extracorporeal circulation received either the glycine-enriched OIENS (OIENS + glyc, n = 24), standard OIENS (OIENS, n = 25), or control formula (Control, n = 25) for minimally 5 preoperative days. Patients were included if they were aged 70 years or older, had a compromised left ventricular function, or were planned for mitral valve surgery. Main outcome measures were postoperative infectious morbidity, organ function, and postoperative recovery.

RESULTS

Infectious morbidity was significantly lower in both treatment groups compared with the control group (p = .02). An infection was diagnosed in 5 and 4 patients in the OIENS + glyc and OIENS groups, respectively, and in 12 control patients. Less supportive therapy was necessary to stabilize circulation in both treatment groups compared with the control group. Median length of hospital stay was 7.0, 6.5, and 8.0 days in the OIENS + glyc, OIENS, and control groups, respectively. Inflammatory responses, as measured by systemic levels of proinflammatory cytokines and surface markers on polymorphonuclear cells, were comparable for all groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative OIENS reduces postoperative infectious morbidity and results in a more stable circulation; the addition of glycine does not result in any beneficial effect over standard OIENS.

Intra-articular tranexamic acid wash during bilateral total knee arthroplasty

PURPOSE

To compare the outcome after simultaneous bilateral total knee arthroplasty (TKA) with or without an intra-articular tranexamic acid (TXA) wash in terms of blood loss, haemoglobin change, and transfusion requirement.

METHODS

35 women and 10 men (mean age, 67.5 years) who underwent primary simultaneous bilateral TKA by a single senior surgeon were compared with 45 matched controls. In the TXA group, 1500 mg of TXA diluted in 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride was administered as a wash after cementing of implant and before closure of the retinaculum. At least 5 minutes of contact time was allowed before wound closure and tourniquet deflation. No drain was used.

RESULTS

No patients had thromboembolic complication. Compared with controls, the TXA group had lower perioperative blood loss (920 vs. 657 ml, p=0.001), total blood loss (997 vs. 679 ml, p<0.001), blood transfusion rate (60% vs. 37.8%, p=0.035), percentage of patients requiring more than one blood unit (24.4% vs. 8.9%, p=0.048), and length of hospitalisation (6 vs. 4 days, p<0.001). Nonetheless, the 2 groups were comparable in blood units and volume transfused.

CONCLUSION

An intra-articular TXA wash during simultaneous bilateral TXA reduced total blood loss and resulted in a difference of 22.2% in blood transfusion rate and a 2-day reduction in the length of hospital stay.

A regime of two intravenous injections of tranexamic acid reduces blood loss in minimally invasive total hip arthroplasty: a prospective randomised double-blind study

Tranexamic acid (TXA), an inhibitor of fibrinolysis, reduces blood loss after total knee arthroplasty. However, its effect on minimally invasive total hip arthroplasty (THA) is not clear. We performed a prospective, randomised double-blind study to evaluate the effect of two intravenous injections of TXA on blood loss in patients undergoing minimally invasive THA. In total, 60 patients (35 women and 25 men with a mean age of 58.1 years; 17 to 84) who underwent unilateral minimally invasive uncemented THA were randomly divided into the study group (30 patients, 20 women and ten men with a mean age of 56.5 years; 17 to 79) that received two intravenous injections 1 g of TXA pre- and post-operatively (TXA group), and a placebo group (30 patients, 15 women and 15 men with a mean age of 59.5 years; 23 to 84). We compared the peri-operative blood loss of the two groups. Actual blood loss was calculated from the maximum reduction in the level of haemoglobin. All patients were followed clinically for the presence of venous thromboembolism. The TXA group had a lower mean intra-operative blood loss of 441 ml (150 to 800) versus 615 ml (50 to 1580) in the placebo (p = 0.044), lower mean post-operative blood loss (285 ml (120 to 570) versus 392 ml (126 to 660) (p = 0.002), lower mean total blood loss (1070 ml (688 to 1478) versus 1337 ml (495 to 2238) (p = 0.004) and lower requirement for transfusion (p = 0.021). No patients in either group had symptoms of venous thromboembolism or wound complications. This prospective, randomised controlled study showed that a regimen of two intravenous injections of 1 g TXA is effective for blood conservation after minimally invasive THA.

Reducing surgical site infection in arthroplasty of the lower limb: A multi-disciplinary approach

Objectives

To review the current best surgical practice and detail a multi-disciplinary approach that could further reduce joint replacement infection.

Methods

Review of relevant literature indexed in PubMed.

Results

Surgical site infection is a major complication following arthroplasty. Despite its rarity in contemporary orthopaedic practice, it remains difficult to treat and is costly in terms of both patient morbidity and long-term health care resources.

Conclusions

Emphasis on education of patients and all members of the health-care team and raising awareness in how to participate in preventative efforts is imperative.

Postoperative use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in patients with anastomotic leakage requiring reoperation after colorectal resection: cohort study based on prospective data

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effect of postoperative use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on anastomotic leakage requiring reoperation after colorectal resection.

DESIGN

Cohort study based on data from a prospective clinical database and electronically registered medical records.

SETTING

Six major colorectal centres in eastern Denmark.

PARTICIPANTS

2766 patients (1441 (52%) men) undergoing elective operation for colorectal cancer with colonic or rectal resection and primary anastomosis between 1 January 2006 and 31 December 2009. Median age was 70 years (interquartile range 62-77).

INTERVENTION

Postoperative use of NSAID (defined as at least two days of NSAID treatment in the first seven days after surgery).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Frequency of clinical anastomotic leakage verified at reoperation; mortality at 30 days.

RESULTS

Of 2756 patients with available data and included in the final analysis, 1871 (68%) did not receive postoperative NSAID treatment (controls) and 885 (32%) did. In the NSAID group, 655 (74%) patients received ibuprofen and 226 (26%) received diclofenac. Anastomotic leakage verified at reoperation was significantly increased among patients receiving diclofenac and ibuprofen treatment, compared with controls (12.8% and 8.2% v 5.1%; P<0.001). After unadjusted analyses and when compared with controls, more patients had anastomotic leakage after treatment with diclofenac (7.8% (95% confidence interval 3.9% to 12.8%)) and ibuprofen (3.2% (1.0% to 5.7%)). But after multivariate logistic regression analysis, only diclofenac treatment was a risk factor for leakage (odds ratio 7.2 (95% confidence interval 3.8 to 13.4), P<0.001; ibuprofen 1.5 (0.8 to 2.9), P=0.18). Other risk factors for anastomotic leakage were male sex, rectal (v colonic) anastomosis, and blood transfusion. 30 day mortality was comparable in the three groups (diclofenac 1.8% v ibuprofen 4.1% v controls 3.2%; P=0.20).

CONCLUSIONS

Diclofenac treatment could result in an increased proportion of patients with anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective NSAIDs should be used with caution after colorectal resections with primary anastomosis. Large scale, randomised controlled trials are urgently needed.

Prospective randomized evaluation of a collagen/thrombin and autologous platelet hemostatic agent during total knee arthroplasty

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a collagen/thrombin and autologous platelet hemostatic agent in preventing blood loss during primary total knee arthroplasty. This prospective, double-blinded, randomized study was designed to enroll a total of 100 patients. Patients were randomized 1:1 to either the treatment arm (standard hemostasis plus study product) or the control arm (standard hemostasis alone). Transfusion requirements, as determined by a blinded investigator using standardized criteria, were significantly lower in the treatment group (no blood transfusions) compared with the control group (5 transfusions; P = .007). These data support the addition of the study product to prevent blood transfusions after primary total knee arthroplasty.

2010 Mid-America Orthopaedic Association Physician in Training Award: predictors of early adverse outcomes after knee and hip arthroplasty in geriatric patients

BACKGROUND

Geriatric patients experience more adverse events owing to early complications after TKA or THA related to preexisting comorbidities. However, associations between patient and surgery variables, including age, BMI, and comorbidities with complications are unclear. Knowing these relationships is necessary for developing risk stratification, defining contraindications, and predicting complications and adverse outcomes.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

We wished to establish and quantify the associations among age, BMI, comorbidities, and type of surgery and anesthesia with complications and early adverse outcomes including longer length of stay, disposition to an extended care facility, readmission, and reoperation in geriatric patients undergoing TKA and THA.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We prospectively followed a cohort of patients older than 65 years undergoing TKA or THA. Demographics, comorbidities, complications, discharge disposition, readmission, and/or reoperation information within the 90-day postoperative period were collected. Adjusted hierarchical stepwise multivariable regression models were used to analyze associations and relative risks with complications, length of stay, disposition, readmission, and reoperation rates.

RESULTS

Patients were approximately 40% more likely to have any complication per each subsequent 10 years of age. Patients who underwent bilateral TKAs were 65% more likely to have any type of complication. Patients who had epidural anesthesia were 2.6 times more likely to have a major systemic complication. Patients with coronary artery disease were more likely to have a transfusion, more likely to have major local complications, including joint infection and/or a major systemic complication, and more likely to require a reoperation after TKA.

CONCLUSIONS

Age, type of surgery, anesthesia, and other comorbidities, mainly coronary artery disease and chronic heart failure, were associated with complications and adverse outcomes. We believe these risk factors should be used to counsel patients and make preoperative surgical decisions.

Surgery induced immunosuppression

Surgery and anaesthesia result in a variety of metabolic and endocrine responses, which result in a generalised state of immunosuppression in the immediate post-operative period. Surgery induced immunosuppression has been implicated in the development of post-operative septic complications and tumour metastasis formation. In addition the effectiveness of many treatments in the adjuvant setting is dependent on a functioning immune system. By understanding the mechanisms contributing to surgery-induced immunosuppression, surgeons may undertake strategies to minimise its effect and reduce potential short-term and long-term consequences to patients.

Identification and treatment of anaemia in patients awaiting hip replacement

INTRODUCTION

The correction of anaemia prior to total hip arthroplasty reduces surgical risk, hospital stay and cost. This study considers the benefits of implementing a protocol of identifying and treating pre-operative anaemia whilst the patient is on the waiting list for surgery.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From a prospective series of 322 patients undergoing elective total hip arthroplasty (THA), patients identified as anaemic (haemoglobin (Hb) < 12 g/dl) when initially placed upon the waiting list were appropriately investigated and treated. Pre- and postoperative Hb levels, need for transfusion, and length of hospital stay were collated for the entire patient cohort.

RESULTS

Of the cohort, 8.8% of patients were anaemic when initially placed upon the waiting list for THA and had a higher transfusion rate (23% versus 3%; P < 0.05) and longer hospital stay (7.5 days versus 6.6 days; P < 0.05). Over 40% of these patients responded to investigation and treatment whilst on the waiting list, showing a significant improvement in Hb level (10.1 g/dl to 12.7 g/dl) and improved transfusion rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Quantifying the haemoglobin level of patients when initially placed on the waiting list helps highlight those at risk of requiring a postoperative blood transfusion. Further, the early identification of anaemia allows for the utilisation of the waiting-list time to investigate and treat these patients. For patients who respond to treatment, there is a significant reduction in the need for blood transfusion with its inherent hazards.

Attitudes to blood transfusion post arthroplasty surgery in the United Kingdom: a national survey

Five hundred orthopaedic surgeons and 336 anaesthetists were surveyed to assess current UK attitudes towards transfusion practice following arthroplasty surgery. Seventy-two percent of surgeons and 73% of anaesthetists responded to the survey. In an uncomplicated patient following total hip arthroplasty, 53.2% of surgeons and 63.1% of anaesthetists would transfuse at or below a haemoglobin (Hb) level of 8 g/dL. Surgeons tended to be more aggressive in their attitudes, with a mean transfusion threshold of 8.3 g/dL compared to 7.9 g/dL for anaesthetists (p<0.01), and with 97% of surgeons transfusing two or more units compared to 78% of anaesthetists (p<0.01). This threshold Hb increased if the patient was symptomatic (surgeons 9.3 g/dL, anaesthetists 8.8 g/dL, p<0.05) or was known to have pre-existing ischaemic heart disease (surgeons 9.0 g/dL, anaesthetists 9.2 g/dL, p<0.05). A wide variability in attitudes and practices is demonstrated, and the development and adoption of consensus guidelines needs to be encouraged if efforts to reduce the use of blood products are to succeed.

Safe and successful restriction of transfusion in burn patients

An acceptable strategy for transfusion of burn patients has not been specifically identified. In 1999, we empirically adopted a hemoglobin (Hb) transfusion trigger of 7.0 g/dl or greater in our burn center. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of this restrictive transfusion strategy. Retrospective comparison of adults with 20% or greater TBSA treated from 1999 to 2004 (restrictive group; REST) with patients treated before our adoption of the restrictive transfusion strategy (1997-1998: liberal group; LIB). The REST group (n = 135, age 42 +/- 17 years, %TBSA burn 37 +/- 14, and 26% incidence of inhalation injury) did not differ significantly from the LIB group (n = 37, age 42 +/- 16 years, %TBSA burn 38 +/- 17, and 35% inhalation injury). The Hb triggering a transfusion was 7.1 +/- 1.2 g/dl in the REST group, compared with 9.2 +/- 2.1 g/dl in the LIB group (P < .001). The REST group received significantly fewer units of blood per day than the LIB Group. Patients in the REST group appeared to have significantly better organ function, and there were no differences between the groups in the incidence of acute myocardial infarction. Mortality at 30 days was significantly lower in the REST group (19% vs 38%; P = .03), as was overall in-hospital mortality (22% vs 46%; P = .003). Transfusion restriction appears to be safe and resulted in fewer transfusions among this group of burn patients. Prospective studies are needed before broadly recommending a transfusion trigger of 7.0 g/dl.

Coagulation parameters after retransfusion of unwashed blood

Postoperative blood salvage reduces the risk of allogenic transfusion in patients undergoing elective total joint arthroplasty. We measured the concentrations of coagulation parameters after autotransfusion of unwashed shed blood in 22 patients having elective joint arthroplasty and compared them with patients without retransfusion. Twenty-two patients with a total hip or knee arthroplasty received a mean of 611.4 mL unwashed but filtered shed blood. No complications were observed during or after the reinfusion of salvaged blood. Levels of D-dimer and fibrinogen increased significantly over time after retransfusion (P < .0001). Comparison of the autotransfused group with the 25 patients without reinfused shed blood showed no significant difference in fibrinogen concentration between the 2 groups in the postoperative course but a significant difference with increased D-dimer concentrations in the autotransfused group (P < .001).

Blood management in revision total knee arthroplasty

Much attention has been focused on blood management issues in orthopaedic surgery in recent years, but blood management in patients having revision total knee arthroplasty is not well-established. Hematologic values and transfusion records of 100 patients (52 women, 48 men; mean age, 65 years) who had aseptic revision total knee arthroplasty at the authors' institution were evaluated retrospectively. Two- or three-component revisions comprised 66% of the procedures, and 58 patients participated in a preoperative autologous donation program. The mean preoperative hemoglobin level was 12.1 g/dL in the women and 14.1 g/dL in the men, but the men experienced a greater decrease in hemoglobin level (mean largest decrease, 4.2 g/dL versus 3.1 g/dL), possibly caused by the higher allogeneic transfusion rate in women (19.2%) versus men (4.2%). Patient age did not influence hemoglobin level or transfusion rates. Patients who participated in a preoperative autologous donation program had significantly higher hemoglobin levels before donation (14.4 g/dL versus 13.3 g/dL for patients who did not participate in a program) but comparable hemoglobin levels after predonation (12.9 g/dL). Patients with preoperative hemoglobin levels less than 13 g/dL were significantly more likely to have a transfusion. Symptom-based transfusion strategies and blood management approaches such as epoetin alfa that elevate preoperative hemoglobin level therefore may be beneficial in patients having revision total knee arthroplasty.

Use of recombinant human erythropoietin in two-stage total knee arthroplasty for infection

A multicenter prospective study was conducted to determine whether epoetin alfa could be used to lower transfusion requirements after two-stage exchange arthroplasty for infection. Forty-one consecutive patients undergoing successful two-stage exchange arthroplasty for an infected total knee arthroplasty were enrolled in a prospective study. Epoetin alfa (40,000 units) was administered subcutaneously after prosthesis resection and antibiotic spacer placement. Although there was no difference in the hemoglobin levels before resection arthroplasty or on postoperative Day 3 between the study group and the control group, hemoglobin levels before reimplantation were higher in the patients who received epoetin alfa (12.4 mg/dL; range, 9.3-15.1 mg/dL) compared with the control group (11.3 mg/dL; range, 8.1-14.4 mg/dL). Average increase in hemoglobin level in the interval between stages was higher in the treatment group (3.2 mg/dL; range, -0.7-6.8 mg/dL) than the control group (1.7 mg/dL; range, -1.9-6 mg/dL). The transfusion rate decreased from 83% of patients in the control group to 34% in the study group during reimplantation. In addition, overall incidence of transfusion for either stage improved from 89% in the control group to 44% in the patients treated with epoetin alfa. Perioperative epoetin alfa statistically increased the hemoglobin levels and decreased transfusion rates for patients undergoing two-stage revision for infected total knee arthroplasty.