Frequency of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in a pediatric intensive care unit

Gastrointestinal bleeding in children: diagnostic approach

Different conditions may underlie gastrointestinal bleeding (GIB) in children. The estimated prevalence of GIB in children is 6.4%, with spontaneous resolution in approximately 80% of cases. Nonetheless, the initial approach plays a pivotal role in determining the prognosis. The priority is the stabilization of hemodynamic status, followed by a systematic diagnostic approach. GIB can originate from either upper or lower gastrointestinal tract, leading to a broad differential diagnosis in infants and children. This includes benign and self-limiting disorders, alongside serious conditions necessitating immediate treatment. We performed a nonsystematic review of the literature, in order to describe the variety of conditions responsible for GIB in pediatric patients and to outline diagnostic pathways according to patients' age, suspected site of bleeding and type of bleeding which can help pediatricians in clinical practice. Diagnostic modalities may include esophagogastroduodenoscopy and colonoscopy, abdominal ultrasonography or computed tomography and, when necessary, magnetic resonance imaging. In this review, we critically assess these procedures, emphasizing their respective advantages and limitations concerning specific clinical scenarios.

Life-threatening massive upper gastrointestinal bleeding in a term and healthy baby

Upper gastrointestinal (UGI) bleeding due to gastric ulcer and gastritis can be seen in severely ill or premature infants but is rarely reported in healthy term newborns. UGI endoscopy is crucial for the etiological evaluation and appropriate treatment of UGI hemorrhages. This report discusses the differential diagnosis and treatment approach in a previously healthy infant who was admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit due to life-threatening severe UGI bleeding causing hemodynamic instability.

Proton Pump Inhibitor Use and Associated Infectious Complications in the PICU: Propensity Score Matching Analysis

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the association between proton pump inhibitor (PPI) exposure and nosocomial infection (NI) during PICU stay.

DESIGN

Propensity score matched analysis of a single-center retrospective cohort from January 1, 2017, to December 31, 2018.

SETTING

Tertiary medical and surgical PICU in France.

PATIENTS

Patients younger than 18 years old, admitted to the PICU with a stay greater than 48 hours.

INTERVENTION

Patients were retrospectively allocated into two groups and compared depending on whether they received a PPI or not.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Seven-hundred fifty-four patients were included of which 231 received a PPI (31%). PPIs were mostly used for stress ulcer prophylaxis (174/231; 75%), but upper gastrointestinal bleed risk factors were rarely present (18%). In the unadjusted analyses, the rate of NI was 8% in the PPI exposed group versus 2% in the nonexposed group. After propensity score matching ( n = 184 per group), we failed to identify an association between PPI exposure and greater odds of NI (adjusted odds ratio 2.9 [95% CI, 0.9-9.3]; p = 0.082). However, these data have not excluded the possibility that there is up to nine-fold greater odds of NI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the prevalent use of PPIs in the PICU, and the potential association between PPIs and nine-fold greater odds of NI is not excluded.

Stress ulcer prophylaxis for critically ill children: routine use needs to be re-examined

INTRODUCTION

Stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP) is commonly used in Paediatric Intensive Care Units (PICUs). However, strong evidence for this practice is lacking and there is a dire need for paediatric randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Our aim was to assess the usefulness of SUP with omeprazole in critically ill children.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted a randomized, controlled open-label trial, including 144 children admitted into a PICU with a paediatric Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (pSOFA) score of less than 16. We randomly allocated patients to SUP with omeprazole or no SUP. The primary outcome was development of upper gastrointestinal bleeding or nosocomial infection.

RESULTS

The incidence of gastrointestinal bleeding was 27.1%, but clinically significant bleeding developed in only 5.6% of patients. We did not find a significant difference in the incidence of bleeding between the prophylaxis and control groups (27.8% vs 26.4%; P = .85). We also did not find a significant difference between the groups in the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) (9.6% vs 8.3%; P = .77). The incidence of central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) was higher in the prophylaxis group compared to the control group (30.6% vs 12.5%; P = .014). None of the patients developed Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. We did not find significant differences in mortality, length of PICU stay or duration of mechanical ventilation. Mechanical ventilation was an independent predictor of bleeding (OR, 6.4; 95%CI, 2.73-14.9).

CONCLUSION

In PICU patients with mild to moderate organ dysfunction, omeprazole does not seem to be useful for prevention of gastrointestinal bleeding while at the same time increasing the risk of CLABSI. Thus, we recommend restricting SUP to mechanically ventilated children.

Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis for Critical Asthma

BACKGROUND

Children hospitalized for critical asthma (CA) in the pediatric ICU (PICU) are commonly prescribed stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP) to mitigate risk of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. We sought to describe trends for SUP prescribing and explore for differences in rates of GI bleeding, gastritis, and SUP-related complications for those with and without SUP exposure.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective, multicenter cohort study using the Pediatric Hospital Information System registry among 42 children's hospitals from 2010 to 2019 including children 3 to 17 years of age admitted to the PICU for CA. Primary outcomes were chronologic and regional variation in SUP prescribing assessed by Joinpoint regression and Pearson's correlation. Rates of GI bleeding, gastritis, enteric ulceration, and SUP-related complications (C. difficile colitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, and thrombocytopenia) were compared for those with and without SUP exposure.

RESULTS

Of 30 177 children studied, 10 387 (34.4%) received SUP. No episodes of GI bleeding were recorded. One subject developed gastric ulceration and 32 (0.1%) gastritis. Linear trends for SUP were observed with rates increasing from 25.5% in 2010 to 42.1% in 2019 (+1.9% annually). Prescribing varied by institution (range: 5.5% to 97.2%) without correlation to admission volumes. Extremely rare rates of SUP-related complications were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Although children hospitalized for CA routinely receive SUP, no episodes of GI bleeding were noted over a 10-year period. SUP solely for corticosteroid exposure may be unwarranted. We advocate for a targeted approach to SUP considering alternative risk factors for GI bleeding.

[Stress ulcer prophylaxis for critically ill children: Routine use needs to be re-examined]

INTRODUCTION

Stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP) is commonly used in Paediatric Intensive Care Units (PICUs). However, strong evidence for this practice is lacking and there is a dire need for paediatric randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Our aim was to assess the usefulness of SUP with omeprazole in critically ill children.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We conducted a randomized, controlled open-label trial, including 144 children admitted into a PICU with a paediatric Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (pSOFA) score of less than 16. We randomly allocated patients to SUP with omeprazole or no SUP. The primary outcome was development of upper gastrointestinal bleeding or nosocomial infection.

RESULTS

The incidence of gastrointestinal bleeding was 27.1%, but clinically significant bleeding developed in only 5.6% of patients. We did not find a significant difference in the incidence of bleeding between the prophylaxis and control groups (27.8 vs. 26.4%; p = 0.85). We also did not find a significant difference between the group in the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) (9.6 vs. 8.3%; p = 0.77). The incidence of central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) was higher in the prophylaxis group compared to the control group (30.6% vs. 12.5%; p = 0.014). None of the patients developed Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. We did not find significant differences in mortality, length of PICU stay or duration of mechanical ventilation. Mechanical ventilation was an independent predictor of bleeding (OR 6.4; 95% CI, 2.73-14.9).

CONCLUSION

In PICU patients with mild to moderate organ dysfunction, omeprazole does not seem to be useful for prevention of gastrointestinal bleeding while at the same time increasing the risk of CLABSI. Thus, we recommend restricting SUP to mechanically ventilated children.

Current status and future challenges in the endoscopic management of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding in children

PURPOSE

This study aimed to elucidate the characteristics of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (NVUGIB) in children and the outcomes of endoscopic hemostasis (EH) performed by pediatric surgeons.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of pediatric patients with NVUGIB who had undergone esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) at our hospital, between December 2006 and March 2020.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients were included. The most common endoscopic diagnosis was gastritis (28%), followed by gastric ulcer (25%) and duodenal ulcer (25%). Thirty patients (83%) had underlying diseases, including a recent viral infection (39%), followed by Helicobacter pylori infection (14%). Fourteen patients (39%) underwent EH, exhibiting a high initial rate of hemostasis (100%). This was achieved in 12/14 patients by clipping. One patient was treated using a combination of a hypersaline and epinephrine (HSE) injection and coagulation therapy, as the ulcer exceeded the width of the hemoclips. Rebleeding occurred in one patient (7.1%) initially treated with pure ethanol injections. The partial view of the pediatric duodenum prevented the placement of hemoclips; hence, the patient was treated using a combination of HSE and coagulation therapy.

CONCLUSION

Clipping, injection, and/or coagulation therapy can lead to high success rates for hemostasis, considering the anatomical characteristics in a pediatric population.

Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis in Critically Ill Children: A Multicenter Observational Study

OBJECTIVE

To describe current stress ulcer prophylaxis practice in Canadian PICUs.

DESIGN

Multicenter cohort study. We defined stress ulcer prophylaxis as the use of a proton-pump inhibitor, histamine-2 receptor antagonist, or sucralfate within the first 2 PICU days among children who had not been on these medications at home and had no evidence of gastrointestinal bleeding.

SETTING

Seven PICUs in Canada.

PATIENTS

Three hundred seventy-eight children requiring mechanical ventilation.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Children were ventilated for a median (interquartile range) of 2 days (1-6 d) and stayed in the PICU for a median (interquartile range) of 4 days (2-10 d). The median (interquartile range) age was 1.3 years (0.3-6.7 yr). Seventy percent of all children received acid suppression during their PICU stay. One hundred sixty-seven (54%) of the 309 children eligible for stress ulcer prophylaxis received it. Histamine-2 receptor antagonists were the most frequently used class (66%), followed by proton-pump inhibitors (47%) and sucralfate (4%), and 20% received more than one class. Stress ulcer prophylaxis was continued on the PICU transfer orders for 34% of these children. Children who received prophylaxis were older and had a higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality III score, more often received nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and systemic corticosteroids and received less enteral nutrition. In multivariate analysis, age and invasive mechanical ventilation were independently associated with an increased likelihood of receiving stress ulcer prophylaxis and receiving feeds was independently associated with a decreased likelihood of receiving stress ulcer prophylaxis. Gastrointestinal bleeding was reported in 21 (6%) of 378 children; three (0.8%) were clinically important. Eighteen percent were treated for a new respiratory tract infection, and 1% developed Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress ulcer prophylaxis is common in Canadian PICUs. Clinically important gastrointestinal bleeding and C. difficile-associated diarrhea are rare, and the utility of routine prophylaxis should be examined.

Stress ulcer prophylaxis in children with status asthmaticus receiving systemic corticosteroids: a descriptive study assessing frequency of clinically important bleeding

Objective: To determine the frequency of clinically important bleeding (CIB) among children hospitalized for status asthmaticus with and without exposure to stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP).Methods: We performed a single-center, retrospective cohort in 217 children admitted for asthma exacerbation aged 5-18 years from May 2015 to May 2017. We assessed cohorts with and without exposure to SUP to determine if differences in frequency of CIB exist. Study outcomes included frequency of CIB, gastrointestinal complications (occult bleeding, macroscopic bleeding, gastric perforation, and acquired gastritis), and SUP-related adverse events (ventilator associated pneumonia, C. difficile colitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, and acute thrombocytopenia).Results: Ninety-two (42%) children received SUP of which 82 were admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). There were no differences in asthma severity or known risk factors for CIB in children with and without SUP in the PICU subcohort. We observed no CIB or SUP-related adverse events. Two subjects acquired gastritis in the no-SUP cohort and one additional subject experienced occult gastrointestinal bleeding with spontaneous symptom resolution.Conclusion: Children admitted for status asthmaticus with and without SUP had no observed incidence of CIB. In this specific population, we propose a prerequisite assessment for the presence of known stress ulcer related gastrointestinal bleeding risk factors prior to the blanket administration of SUP.

Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to upper gastrointestinal bleeding

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of clarity about the approach to and management of upper gastrointestinal (UGI) bleeding in children.

AIM

To examine the recent literature on UGI bleeding in children in order to outline the diagnostic approach and management.

METHODS

The English language literature was searched for articles on UGI bleeding in children. Special attention was paid to its prevalence, risk factors, clinical approach and management.

RESULTS

Although UGI bleeding is a common complication (10%) in paediatric intensive care units (PICU), clinically significant UGI bleeding (haemodynamic instability, fall in haemoglobin by 2 g/dL and/or a requirement for blood transfusion) is less common (1.6%). In low- and middle-income countries, clinically significant UGI bleeding is commonly owing to variceal bleeding whereas non-variceal aetiologies (e.g. peptic ulcer disease) are common in high-income countries. The fundamental clinical principles of managing UGI bleeding are immediate assessment of severity, detecting possible causes and stabilising the haemodynamic status. In suspected cases of variceal bleeding, intravenous octreotide and, in non-variceal bleeding, administration of a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) should be commenced immediately. UGI endoscopy plays a vital role in diagnosis and management. Over-transfusion should be avoided (target haemoglobin 7-9 g/dL). Stress ulcer prophylaxis is recommended in a select group of patients in PICUs (e.g. respiratory failure, coagulopathy and paediatric risk of mortality score ≥10).

CONCLUSIONS

In clinically significant UGI bleeding, the primary goal is to restore the haemodynamic status, followed by early endoscopy. Intravenous octreotide in suspected variceal and PPI in non-variceal bleeding should be administered early. Stress ulcer prophylaxis should be restricted to high-risk children only.

Hemorrhagic Stress-induced Gastric Ulcer in a Healthy Toddler

A 1-year-old female toddler who was under a great amount of psychological stress presented with acute hematemesis. She had no significant medical history; she displayed lethargy and was anemic. Although blood transfusion and famotidine were administered for upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB), the anemia did not improve. Thus, early endoscopy was performed under general anesthesia, revealing a gastric ulcer with exposed vessels in the supra-angular region. Cauterization via bipolar hemostatic forceps was performed on the exposed vessels, and the bleeding was controlled successfully. We diagnosed the patient with hemorrhagic stress-induced gastric ulcer due to psychological stress. Three months later, endoscopy revealed that the gastric ulcer had healed.

Sengstaken-Blakemore Tube: an extra mile

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) in children has multiple etiologies but fortunately is not encountered commonly by pediatricians. Aorto-esophageal fistula (AEF) in children is a rare cause of UGIB and it is mainly secondary to accidental ingestion of foreign bodies, particularly disc batteries, or after cardiothoracic surgery. In this study, we report a case of a 3-year-old child who developed de novo AEF with no prior injury to the esophagus. The child presented with massive UGIB leading to hypovolemic shock, acute kidney injury, and cardiac arrest. The torrential bleed was controlled using a Sengstaken–Blakemore Tube (SBT), which allowed urgent chest CT angiography as well as subsequent thoracotomy and repair of the fistula Unfortunately, the child succumbed to repeated cardiac arrests secondary to the renal injury and severe acidosis. This case highlights the need for the early recognition of massive UGIB in children and the requirement to make appropriately sized SBTs available in all pediatric gastroenterology units.

Pediatric intensive care stress ulcer prevention (PIC-UP): a protocol for a pilot randomized trial

Background

Despite sparse pediatric data on effectiveness, the majority of critically ill children receive medications to prevent gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. Stress ulcer prophylaxis may have unintended consequences—increasing the risk of nosocomial infections—which may be more serious and common than the bleeding which these drugs are prescribed to prevent. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in pediatric critical care are exceptionally challenging to complete, thus a rigorous pilot RCT is crucial. The objective of this pilot RCT is to assess the feasibility of a large multicentre RCT of stress ulcer prophylaxis with pantoprazole to prevent upper GI bleeding vs. placebo.

Methods

A multi-centre blinded pilot RCT of 120 children in six Canadian PICUs. Children expected to require mechanical ventilation for more than 48 h will be randomized to receive intravenous pantoprazole 1 mg/kg or identical placebo once daily until they no longer need mechanical ventilation. We have four feasibility outcomes and will consider the trial successful if we achieve:

Effective screening: If >80% of eligible patients are approached for consent.

Timely enrollment: if >80% of participants receive their first dose of the assigned study drug within 1 day of becoming eligible.

Participant accrual: If the average monthly enrolment is two or more participants per centre per month.

Protocol adherence: if >90% of doses are administered according to the protocol.

Discussion

There are many uncertainties about the risks and benefits of stress ulcer prophylaxis. In an era of widespread use—where clinicians prescribe prophylaxis to the more severely ill—a large, rigorous RCT is required. A trial to determine if a strategy of withholding stress ulcer prophylaxis is not inferior to a strategy of routine stress ulcer prophylaxis will be challenging. A carefully designed and implemented pilot trial is essential.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov:NCT02929563 (Registered October 3, 2016).

Therapeutic Endoscopy for the Control of Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Children: A Case Series

OBJECTIVES

Gastrointestinal bleeding is one of the most common indications for urgent endoscopy in the pediatric setting. The majority of these procedures are performed for control of variceal bleeding, with few performed for nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal (NVUGI) bleeding. The data on therapeutic endoscopy for NVUGI are sparse. The aims of our study were to review our experience with NVUGI bleeding, describe technical aspects and outcomes of therapeutic endoscopy, and determine gastroenterology fellows' training opportunities according to the national training guidelines.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of endoscopy database (Endoworks, Olympus Inc, Center Valley, PA) from January 2009 to December 2014. The search used the following keywords: bleeding, hematemesis, melena, injection, epinephrine, cautery, clip, and argon plasma coagulation. The collected data included demographics, description of bleeding lesion and medical/endoscopic therapy, rate of rebleeding, relevant laboratories, physical examination, and need for transfusion and surgery. The study was approved by the institutional review board.

RESULTS

During the study period 12,737 upper endoscopies (esophagogastroduodenoscopies) were performed. A total of 15 patients underwent 17 esophagogastroduodenoscopies that required therapeutic intervention to control bleeding (1:750 procedures). The mean ± standard deviation (median) age of patients who required endoscopic intervention was 11.6 ± 6.0 years (14.0 years). Seven out of 17 patients received dual therapy to control the bleeding lesions. All but 3 patients received medical therapy with intravenous proton pump inhibitor, and 3 received octreotide infusions. Six of the patients experienced rebleeding (40%), with 4 out of 6 initially only receiving single modality therapy. Two of these patients eventually required surgical intervention to control bleeding and both patients presented with bleeding duodenal ulcers. There were no cases of aspiration, perforation, or deaths. There were a total of 24 fellows trained in our program during the study period. Less than 1 therapeutic endoscopy per fellow for NVUGI bleeding was performed.

CONCLUSIONS

NVUGI bleeding requiring therapeutic endoscopic intervention is rare in pediatrics. A high rate (40%) of rebleeding was noted with a large proportion (66%) of patients receiving single modality therapy. Two patients required surgical intervention to control bleeding and both presented with bleeding duodenal ulcers. An insufficient number of therapeutic procedures is available for adequate fellow training requiring supplemental simulator and hands-on animal model, or adult endoscopy unit training.

Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Chinese Children: A Multicenter 10-Year Retrospective Study

Objective This study aims to analyze the clinical and endoscopic presentations of upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) in the Chinese children. Methods A 10-year retrospective study was made on children with UGIB and undertaken esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) from 4 tertiary referral centers in China. Results Of the 1218 children studied, the bleeding source was found in 76.4%. Erosive gastritis was the most common endoscopic finding (33.5%), followed by duodenal ulcer (23.2%). The proportion of erosive gastritis decreased with age (correlation coefficient = -0.787), and duodenal ulcer increased with age (correlation coefficient = 0.958). The bleeding source was more likely to be determined in children having EGDs within 48 hours (80.6% vs 67.9%). Conclusions In Chinese children with UGIB, erosive gastritis and duodenal ulcer were the leading causes, and their proportions varied with age. EGDs performed within 48 hours may improve the possibility of finding the source of bleeding.

Fasting for haemostasis in children with gastrointestinal bleeding

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal bleeding refers to loss of blood from any site of the digestive tract. In paediatric clinical practice, it is usually a complaint of children attending the emergency department as a symptom of diseases such as ulcers, gastric or oesophageal varices, gastritis, Mallory-Weiss tears, anorectal fissures, allergic colitis, infectious colitis, intussusception, Henoch-Schonlein purpura, and Meckel's diverticulum; it also occurs with high incidence in critically ill children hospitalised in intensive care units and is caused by stress-induced gastropathy. No matter what the cause of gastrointestinal bleeding, fasting is believed to be necessary due to the fear that eating may affect haemostasis or aggravate bleeding.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects and safety of fasting for haemostasis in gastrointestinal bleeding in children.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched EBM Reviews - the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (May 2016), Ovid MEDLINE(R) (1946 to 3 May 2016), EMBASE (1980 to 2016 Week 18), Chinese Biomedical Database (CBM) (1978 to 3 May 2016), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) (1979 to 3 May 2016), VIP Database (1989 to 4 May 2016) and Wanfang Data (1990 to 4 May 2016). We used no restrictions on language or study setting and limited searches in CNKI and Wanfang Data to the medical field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs in children with gastrointestinal bleeding that compared fasting with feeding.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently screened the literature search results, and there were no disagreements.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified no RCTs or quasi-RCTs that compared the effects and safety of fasting with feeding for haemostasis in children with gastrointestinal bleeding. No study fulfilled the criteria for considering studies for our review.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is currently no information available from RCTs or quasi-RCTs to support or refute the use of fasting for haemostasis in children with gastrointestinal bleeding.

Management of Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Children: Variceal and Nonvariceal

Upper gastrointestinal (UGI) bleeding is generally defined as bleeding proximal to the ligament of Treitz, which leads to hematemesis. There are several causes of UGI bleeding necessitating a detailed history to rule out comorbid conditions, medications, and possible exposures. In addition, the severity, timing, duration, and volume of the bleeding are important details to note for management purposes. Despite the source of the bleeding, acid suppression with a proton-pump inhibitor has been shown to be effective in minimizing rebleeding. Endoscopy remains the interventional modality of choice for both nonvariceal and variceal bleeds because it can be diagnostic and therapeutic.

Current Opinions on Stress-Related Mucosal Disease Prevention in Canadian Pediatric Intensive Care Units

OBJECTIVE

To describe current opinions about stress-related mucosal disease (SRMD) prevention in Canadian pediatric intensive care units (PICUs).

METHODS

A 22-question survey covering several aspects of SRMD was sent to all identified PICU attendings in Canada.

RESULTS

Sixty-eight percent of identified attendings completed the questionnaire. Thirty-eight percent were based in Quebec, 31% in Alberta, and 31% from other provinces. Most attendings (78%) had worked in a PICU for 6 years or more. When asked about risk factors for prescribing SRMD prevention drugs (more than 1 answer was accepted), the most popular answers were prior history of gastric ulceration/bleeding (33 respondents), coagulopathy (28 respondents), and major neurologic insult (18 respondents). Almost half of the attendings (48%) mentioned that they prescribe SRMD prophylaxis directly upon PICU admission to more than 25% of their patients. Forty-nine percent of respondents subjectively estimated that clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB; defined as UGIB associated with either hypotension, transfusion within 24 hours of the event, or death) occurred in less than 1% of their patients. Fifty-seven respondents (93%) used ranitidine as first-line therapy (average dose: 4.1 mg/kg/day, mainly intravenously). As second-line therapy, 32 attendings (52%) used pantoprazole and 13 (21%) used omeprazole.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the paucity of guidelines on SRMD prevention and the low reported incidence of clinically significant UGIB, SRMD prevention is frequently used in Canadian PICUs. Ranitidine is the first-line drug used by most attendings.

Gastric Acid Suppressant Prophylaxis in Pediatric Intensive Care: Current Practice as Reflected in a Large Administrative Database

OBJECTIVES

Stress-related gastrointestinal bleeding may occur in PICU patients. Raising gastric pH with acid suppressant medications is the accepted treatment. We describe the use of histamine 2 receptor blockers and proton pump inhibitors and associated factors among a national sample of PICU patients.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort analysis using Pediatric Health Information System clinically detailed administrative database.

SETTING

Forty-two children's hospitals throughout the United States.

PATIENTS

All hospitalizations for all patients 20 years old or younger, admitted directly to a PICU, from January 1, 2007, through December 31, 2011.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The exposure of interest was treatment with a histamine 2 receptor blocker, proton pump inhibitor, or both on the first day of PICU admission. Demographics, principal and additional diagnoses, and procedure codes were assessed. For each hospitalization, principal diagnosis, coagulation disorder, head trauma, spinal trauma, severe burns, sepsis, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, mechanical ventilation, blood product transfusion, and 10 complex chronic conditions were identified. The frequency of principal diagnoses was determined to identify the most prevalent PICU diseases. Acid suppressant use was categorized as high or low. Three hundred and thirty-six thousand ten inpatient hospitalizations were sampled. Histamine 2 receptor blocker or proton pump inhibitor was used in 60.0%, with histamine 2 receptor blocker alone in 70.4%, proton pump inhibitor alone in 17.8%, and both agents in 11.8%. Use increased over the sample years 2007 through 2011. Gastrointestinal bleeding occurred in 1.32% of hospitalizations with transfusion needed in 0.1%. Among most prevalent diagnoses, histamine 2 receptor blocker and proton pump inhibitor use ranged from 33% to 87%. Sepsis, coagulopathy, and mechanical ventilation identified higher use. Use of histamine 2 receptor blocker or proton pump inhibitor among hospitals varied considerably ranging from 28% to 87%.

CONCLUSIONS

Histamine 2 receptor blocker and proton pump inhibitor are prescribed in most PICU patients, but significant variation exists across health conditions and hospitals. Institutional preferences likely influence variation. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage is infrequent in the current era. Study data limitations prevent examination of associations between medication use and patient outcomes.

Emergency department visits for gastrointestinal bleeding in children: results from the Nationwide Emergency Department Sample 2006-2011

OBJECTIVE

To describe the epidemiology and trends in pediatric gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding associated emergency department (ED) visits in the US.

METHODS

Estimates of GI bleeding associated ED visits were calculated in children from birth to 19 years of age using the Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS).

RESULTS

From 2006 to 2011, there were an estimated total of 437,283 ED visits associated with diagnosis of GI bleeding. Specifically, there were 88,675 cases of upper GI bleeding, 132,102 cases of lower GI bleeding and 217,008 cases of unspecified GI bleeding. GI bleeding associated ED visits increased from 82.2/100,000 children in 2006 to 93.9/100,000 children in 2011 (14.3% increase; P < 0.01). The rate of increase was chiefly noted for lower GI bleeding (31.3%) followed by unspecified GI bleeding (10.4%) with a relatively minor increase in upper GI bleeding (1.1%). The greatest number of visits occurred in children 15-19 years of age (39.2%). A majority of patients underwent routine discharge (80.8%). Risk factors independently associated with an increased rate of hospital admission included ≥3 comorbid conditions (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 112.2; 95% CI 103.4-121.7), presentation to a teaching hospital (aOR 3.2; 95% CI 3.1-3.2), the presence of upper GI bleeding (aOR 3.1; 95% 3.0-3.2), health coverage with private insurance (aOR 1.6; 95% CI 1.6-1.7) and children <5 years of age (aOR 1.3; 95% CI 1.2-1.3).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that there has been an increasing incidence of GI bleeding associated ED visits in children from 2006 to 2011 with cases of lower GI bleeding accounting for the largest increase. Only a small number of children merited admission to the hospital, suggesting that a majority of visits involved non-life-threatening bleeds. These data represent important complementary information to the overall study of pediatric GI bleeding in the US.

Gastrointestinal bleeding in hospitalized children in the United States

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the epidemiology of GI bleeding in hospitalized children in the United States.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Kids' Inpatient Database, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality for the year 2009. The data were weighted to generate national-level estimates.

RESULTS

There were 23,383 pediatric discharges with a diagnosis of GI bleeding accounting for 0.5% of all discharges. Children with a GI bleed compared to those without were more likely to be male (54.5% vs. 45.8%; P < 0.001), older (children ≥11 years; 50.8% vs. 38.7%; P < 0.001), and admitted to a teaching hospital (70.5% vs. 56.4%; P < 0.001). Children 11-15 years of age had the highest incidence of GI bleeding (84.2 per 10,000 discharges) and children less than 1 year of age the lowest (24.4 per 10,000 discharges). The highest incidence of GI bleeding was attributable to cases coded as blood in stool (17.6 per 10,000 discharges) followed by hematemesis (11.2 per 10,000 discharges). Those with a GI bleed had a higher co-morbid burden (12.3% vs. 2.3%; P < 0.001) and severity of illness (40.1% vs. 14.5%; P < 0.001). The highest mortality rates associated with GI bleeding were observed in cases with intestinal perforation (8.7%) and esophageal perforation (8.4%). GI bleeding was independently associated with a higher risk of mortality (aOR 1.68, CI 1.53-1.84).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results describe the epidemiology of GI bleeding in hospitalized children within the United States. We found a substantial risk of mortality attributable to GI bleeding in this patient population. Our study is limited by the exclusion of non-hospitalized children, the reliance on ICD-9-CM codes and the absence of longitudinal follow up of patients.

Interrelationship among common medical complications after acute stroke: pneumonia plays an important role

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Medical complications are common among patients with stroke. However, little is known about the potential interrelationship among them. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the association between common in-hospital medical complications after acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

METHODS

We analyzed patients enrolled in the China National Stroke Registry from 2007 to 2008. The occurrence of 11 common stroke-associated medical complications during acute hospitalization was prospectively registered. Multivariable analysis using generalized estimation equation was performed to assess association between medical complications in AIS and ICH cohort, respectively.

RESULTS

A total of 14 702 patients with AIS and 5221 patients with ICH were enrolled. The median age was 65 years (interquartile range, 55-74 years), and 38.1% were female. The median length of hospital stay was 14 days (interquartile range, 10-20 days) for AIS and 18 days (interquartile range, 11-26 days) for ICH. Pneumonia was the most common medical complication after AIS (11.4%) and ICH (16.8%). In the AIS cohort, after adjusting for potential confounders, pneumonia was significantly associated with development of gastrointestinal bleeding (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 8.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 6.27-11.1; P<0.001), decubitus ulcer (adjusted OR, 5.31; 95% CI, 3.39-8.31; P<0.001), deep vein thrombosis (adjusted OR, 4.27; 95% CI, 2.41-7.59; P<0.001), epileptic seizure (adjusted OR, 3.96; 95% CI, 2.67-5.88; P<0.001), urinary tract infection (adjusted OR, 3.34; 95% CI, 2.73-4.10; P<0.001), atrial fibrillation/flutter (adjusted OR, 3.17; 95% CI, 2.58-3.90; P<0.001), and recurrent stroke (adjusted OR, 2.65; 95% CI, 2.07-3.40; P<0.001). Similar significant association between pneumonia and development of several nonpneumonia medical complications was verified in ICH cohort as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Pneumonia is closely associated with the development of several nonpneumonia medical complications after AIS and ICH.

Upper GI bleeding among neonates admitted to Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports estimate that 85% of newborn deaths are due to infections, prematurity and fetal distress. These conditions are risk factors for upper GI bleeding (UGIB) in sick neonates. UGIB is associated with poor neonatal outcomes such as prolonged hospitalisation and poor weight gain. The magnitude of UGIB and its contribution to neonatal morbidity has not been described in most low income countries.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the occurrence and factors associated with UGIB among neonates admitted to the Special Care Unit (SCU) of Mulago Hospital.

METHODS

This was a prospective single cohort study where neonates admitted within 24 hours of birth were consecutively enrolled and followed up for seven days. Gastric aspirates from the neonates were examined daily over a period of 7 days using Guaiac and Apt tests for evidence of UGIB. Data on occurrence of UGIB has been presented as proportions and Odds Ratios for associated factors.

RESULTS

Out of 191 neonates, 44 (23 %) developed UGIB. Factors independently associated with UGIB included cyanosis in the neonate [OR 5.8; (95% CI; 1.8 - 19.1) p-value 0.004], neonatal seizures [OR 12.6; (95% CI 2.3 - 70.5); p-value 0.004] and birth asphyxia [OR 6.3; (95% CI 1.9 - 21.6); p-value 0.003].

CONCLUSIONS

In the first seven days of life, UGIB occurred in 1:4 neonates. Factors independently associated with UGIB included birth asphyxia, cyanosis in the neonate and neonatal seizures.

Helicobacter Pylori Infection in a Group of Egyptian Children With Upper Gastro-Intestinal Bleeding

Background

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is a life threatening condition in children. Common sources of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in children include mucosal lesions and variceal hemorrhage. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram negative spiral-shaped bacterium that is found in the gastric mucous layer or adherent to the epithelial lining of the stomach. It causes more than 90% of duodenal ulcers and up to 70-80% of gastric ulcers. The relationship between H. pylori infection and upper GIT bleeding in children is still un-clear. This study aimed to estimate the incidence of H. pylori infection in children presented with upper GIT bleeding and correlation between H. pylori infection and endoscopic findings of the cause of bleeding.

Methods

The study included 70 children presented with upper GIT bleeding indicated for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy admitted in pediatric department, Minia University Hospital, Egypt during the period from February 2010 to December 2012. Thirty healthy children were included as a control group with age and sex matched. After medical history taking and physical examination all children were exposed for laboratory investigations (CBC, prothrombin time and concentration, liver function tests, hepatitis viral markers, blood urea and serum creatinine and Helicobacter pylori stool antigen test). Upper endoscopy was done for patients only. Patients were classified into variceal and non variceal groups according to upper endoscopy.

Results

Helico-pylori infection was significantly higher in children with non-variceal bleeding than controls (P = 0.02) and children with variceal bleeding (P = 0.03) with no significant difference between children with variceal bleeding and controls (P = 0.9). Both weights and BMIs centile were significantly lower in variceal and non-variceal groups than controls (P = 0.01 & 0.001 and 0.01 & 0.001 respectively). AST, ALT and direct bilirubin levels were significantly higher in variceal group than controls (P = 0.001, 0.004 & 0.001 respectively). Prothrombin concentration and albumin levels were significantly lower in variceal group than controls (P = 0.001 & 0.01 respectively). Hemoglobin levels were significantly lower in variceal and non-variceal groups than controls (P = 0.01 & 0.001 respectively). No significant differences were present as regards age, sex, height or platelets count between cases (variceal and non-variceal) and controls.

Conclusions

H. pylori infection is significantly higher in children with non-variceal bleeding than controls. No significant difference between children with variceal bleeding and controls. Triad of increased ALT, decreased albumin levels and negative H. pylori infection could be a significant triad in predicting variceal bleeding as a cause of upper GIT bleeding in children.

Therapeutic applications of vasopressin in pediatric patients

CONTEXT

Reports of successful use of vasopressin in various shock states and cardiac arrest has lead to the emergence of vasopressin therapy as a potentially major advancement in the management of critically ill children.

OBJECTIVE

To provide an overview of physiology of vasopressin, rationale of its use and dose schedule in different disease states with special focus on recent advances in the therapeutic applications of vasopressin.

DATA SOURCE

MEDLINE search (1966-September 2011) using terms vasopressin, terlipressin, arginine-vasopressin, shock, septic shock, vasodilatory shock, cardiac arrest, and resuscitation for reports on vasopressin/terlipressin use in children and manual review of article bibliographies. Search was restricted to human studies. Randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, evaluation studies, case series, and case reports on vasopressin/terlipressin use in children (preterm neonates to 21 years of age) were included. Outcome measures were analysed using following clinical questions: indication, dose and duration of vasopressin/terlipressin use, main effects especially on systemic blood pressure, catecholamine requirement, urine output, serum lactate, adverse effects, and mortality.

RESULTS

51 reports on vasopressin (30 reports) and terlipressin (21 reports) use in pediatric population were identified. A total of 602 patients received vasopressin/terlipressin as vasopressors in various catecholamine-resistant states (septic - 176, post-cardiotomy - 136, other vasodilatory/mixed shock - 199, and cardiac arrest - 101). Commonly reported responses include rapid improvement in systemic blood pressure, decline in concurrent catecholamine requirement, and increase in urine output; despite these effects, the mortality rates remained high.

CONCLUSION

In view of the limited clinical experience, and paucity of randomized controlled trials evaluating these drugs in pediatric population, currently no definitive recommendations on vasopressin/terlipressin use can be laid down. Nevertheless, available clinical data supports the use of vasopressin in critically ill children as a rescue therapy in refractory shock and cardiac arrest.

[Gastrointestinal bleeding following ingestion of low-dose ibuprofen]

INTRODUCTION

Ibuprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug frequently used in children for fever and pain. It is usually considered to be safe and of low risk at low doses and short-term use.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The aim of our study was to review the cases of gastrointestinal bleeding and assessment of gastrointestinal bleeding after recommended doses of ibuprofen.

RESULTS

We describe 9 previously healthy patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding after receiving weight-related doses of ibuprofen for fever.

Incidence of peptic ulcer bleeding in the US pediatric population

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to determine the incidence of peptic ulcer bleeding (PUB) in pediatric patients.

METHODS

A hospital inpatient database, Premier Perspective, and an insurance claims database, MarketScan, were analyzed to estimate upper and lower limits for the annual incidence of PUB in the US pediatric population.

RESULTS

Using data from the Premier Perspective database and database-specific projection methodology, the total number of cases of hospitalization of pediatric patients for PUB in the United States in 2008 was estimated to be between 378 and 652. This translated to an incidence of 0.5 to 0.9/100,000 individuals in the pediatric population. Using data from the MarketScan database, the incidence of PUB in the insured pediatric population was estimated to be 4.4/100,000 individuals. Overall, 17.4% of insured pediatric patients diagnosed as having any upper gastrointestinal ulcer in 2008 were reported to have developed PUB.

CONCLUSIONS

The estimated incidence of PUB in the US pediatric population in 2008 ranged from 0.5 to 4.4/100,000 individuals. The total number of cases of PUB in pediatric patients in the United States each year was thus estimated to be between 378 and 3250. Such estimates provide a likely lower and upper limit for the total number of cases of the condition annually.

Effect of histamine-2-receptor antagonists versus sucralfate on stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: a meta-analysis of 10 randomized controlled trials

Introduction

We conducted a meta-analysis in order to investigate the effect of histamine-2-receptor antagonists (H₂RA) versus sucralfate on stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit (ICU).

Methods

A systematic literature search of Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (1966 to January 2010) was conducted using specific search terms. A review of Web of Science and a manual review of references were also performed. Eligible studies were randomized control trials (RCTs) that compared H₂RA and sucralfate for the prevention of stress ulcer in mechanically ventilated patients. Main outcome measures were rates of overt bleeding, clinically important gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, ventilator-associated pneumonia, gastric colonization and ICU mortality.

Results

Ten RCTs with 2,092 participants on mechanical ventilation were identified. Meta-analysis showed there was a trend toward decreased overt bleeding when H₂RA was compared with sucralfate (OR = 0.87, 95% CI: 0.49 to 1.53). A total of 12 clinically important GI bleeding events occurred among 667 patients (1.8%) in the H₂RA group compared with 26 events among 673 patients (3.9%) in the sucralfate groups. Prophylaxis with sucralfate decreased the incidence of gastric colonization (OR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.29 to 3.19) and ventilator-associated pneumonia (OR = 1.32, 95% CI: 1.07 to 1.64). Subgroup analysis showed H₂RA was not superior to sucralfate in reducing early-onset pneumonia (OR = 0.62, 95%CI: 0.36 to 1.07) but had a higher late-onset pneumonia rate (OR = 4.36, 95%CI: 2.09 to 9.09) relative to sucralfate. No statistically significant reduction was observed in mortality of ICU between groups (OR = 1.08, 95% CI: 0.86 to 1.34).

Conclusions

In patients with mechanical ventilation, H₂RA resulted in no differential effectiveness in treating overt bleeding, but had higher rates of gastric colonization and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Additional RCTs of stress ulcer prophylaxis with H₂RA and sucralfate are needed to establish the net benefit and risks of adverse effect in mechanically ventilated patients.

Stress ulcer, gastritis, and gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill pediatric patients: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To identify and evaluate the quality of evidence supporting prophylactic use of treatments for stress ulcers and upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Stress ulcers, erosions of the stomach and duodenum, and upper gastrointestinal bleeding are well-known complications of critical illness in children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit.

DATA SOURCES

Studies were identified from the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PUBMED; LILACS; Scirus. We also scanned bibliographies of relevant studies.

STUDY SELECTION

This systematic review of randomized controlled trials assessed the effects of drugs for stress-related ulcers, gastritis, and upper gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Two reviewers independently extracted the relevant data. Most randomized controlled trials were judged as having unclear risk of bias. When pooling two randomized controlled trials, treatment was significantly more effective in preventing upper gastrointestinal bleeding (macroscopic or important bleeding) compared with no treatment (two studies = 300 participants; relative risk, 0.41; 95% confidence interval, 0.19-0.91; I = 12%). Meta-analysis of two studies found no significant difference in death rates among groups (two randomized controlled trials = 132 participants; relative risk, 1.39; 95% confidence interval, 0.70-2.79; I = 4%). The rate of pneumonia was not significantly different when comparing treatment and no treatment in one study. When comparing ranitidine with no treatment, significant differences were found in the proportion of mechanically ventilated children with normal gastric mucosal endoscopic findings by histologic specimens (one randomized controlled trial = 48 participants; relative risk, 3.53; 95% confidence interval, 1.34-9.29). No significant differences were found when comparing different drugs (omeprazole, ranitidine, sucralfate, famotidine, amalgate), doses, or regimens for main outcomes (deaths, endoscopic findings of erosion or ulcers, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, or pneumonia).

CONCLUSIONS

Although pooled data of two studies suggested that critically ill pediatric patients may benefit from receiving prophylactic treatment to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding, we found that high-quality evidence to guide clinical practice is still limited.

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in children in Southern Iran

OBJECTIVE

To find out whether the causes of upper GI bleeding in our center in a developing country differed from developed countries.

METHODS

Children presenting to our center with upper GI bleeding from March 2002 to March 2007, were retrospectively evaluated. Informations were retrieved from patient's history and physical examination and results of upper GI endoscopy regarding etiology of bleeding, managements, use of medications which might predispose patient to bleeding, and the mortality rate.

RESULTS

From 118 children (67 boys; with age of 7.7+/-4.7 yrs) who underwent upper GI endoscopies, 50% presented with hematemesis, 14% had melena and 36% had both. The most common causes of upper GI bleeding among all patients were gastric erosions (28%), esophageal varices (16%), duodenal erosions (10%), gastric ulcer (8.5%), Mallory Weiss syndrome tear (7.8%), duodenal ulcer (6.8%), esophagitis (1.7%) and duodenal ulcer with gastric ulcer (0.8%). The causes of bleeding could not be ascertained in 20.5% of cases. No significant pre-medication or procedure related complications were observed. Endoscopic therapy was performed in 13.5% of patients. In 14.4% of patients, there was a history of consumption of medications predisposing them to upper GI bleeding. Two deaths occurred (1.7%) too.

CONCLUSION

The findings in the present study showed that half of upper GI bleedings in pediatric patients from south of Iran, were due to gastric and duodenal erosions and ulcers. This study concludes that the causes of upper GI bleeding in children in our center of a developing country, are not different from those in developed ones.

The pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

OBJECTIVES

To review the epidemiology of pediatric multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) and summarize current concepts regarding the pathophysiology of shock, organ dysfunction, and nosocomial infections in this population.

DATA SOURCE

A MEDLINE-based literature search using the keywords MODS and child, without any restriction to the idiom.

MAIN RESULTS

Critically ill children may frequently develop multisystemic manifestations during the course of severe infections, multiple trauma, surgery for congenital heart defects, or transplantations. Descriptive scores to estimate the severity of pediatric MODS have been validated. Young age and chronic health conditions have also been recognized as important contributors to the development of MODS. Unbalanced inflammatory processes and activation of coagulation may lead to the development of capillary leak and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Neuroendocrine and metabolic responses may result in insufficient adaptive immune response and the development of nosocomial infections, which may further threaten host homeostasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Over the last 20 yrs, there has been an increasing knowledge on the epidemiology of pediatric MODS and on the physiologic mechanisms involved in the genesis of organ dysfunction. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to more clearly evaluate what is the long-term outcome of pediatric MODS.

Incidence and risk factors of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in mechanically ventilated children

OBJECTIVE

To identify the incidence and factors related to upper gastrointestinal (UGI) bleeding in children requiring mechanical ventilation for longer than 48 hrs.

DESIGN

Prospective analytic study.

SETTING

Ten-bed-pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care University Hospital.

PATIENTS

A total of 110 patients requiring mechanical ventilation for longer than 48 hrs from January 1, 2005 to December 31, 2005.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

UGI bleeding was defined by evidence of blood in nasogastric aspirates, hematemesis, or melena within 5 days of pediatric intensive care unit admission. We prospectively collected data on patient demographics, admission diagnosis, operative status, and pediatric risk of mortality score. UGI bleeding and the potential risk factors including organ failure, coagulopathy, maximum ventilator setting, enteral feeding, stress ulcer prophylaxis as well as sedation were daily monitored. Of the 110 patients who required mechanical ventilation for >48 hrs, the incidence of UGI bleeding was 51.8%, in which 3.6% of the cases presented with clinically significant bleeding (shock, requiring blood transfusion and/or surgery). Significant risk factors were thrombocytopenia, prolonged partial thromboplastin time, organ failure, high pressure ventilator setting >/=25 cm H2O, and pediatric risk of mortality score >/= 10 using univariate analysis. However, the independent factors of UGI bleeding in the multivariate analysis were organ failure (relative risk = 2.85, 95% confidence interval 1.18-6.92) and high pressure ventilator setting >/=25 cm H2O (relative risk = 3.73, 95% confidence interval 1.59-8.72).

CONCLUSION

The incidence of UGI bleeding is high in children requiring mechanical ventilation. Organ failure and high pressure ventilator setting are significant risk factors for UGI bleeding.

Histamine 2 receptor antagonists vs intravenous proton pump inhibitors in a pediatric intensive care unit: a comparison of gastric pH

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess gastric pH in critically ill pediatric patients receiving intravenous stress ulcer medication.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective study was done in 48 patients with a gastric tube in place who were receiving either ranitidine or a proton pump inhibitor and no enteral nutrition. Daily peak and trough gastric pHs were measured.

RESULTS

The median age was 7 years 5 months (range, 1 month to 19 years), the median weight was 31 kg (range, 3-130 kg), and the median pediatric risk of mortality 2 (PRISM2) score was 12.5 (range, 0-31). All patients were intubated and 8 received dialysis. The average trough pH was 4.4 +/- 1.6 in the ranitidine group, 4.9 +/- 1.8 in the once daily proton pump inhibitor group, and 5.0 +/- 1.2 in the twice daily proton pump inhibitor group (P = .16). The average peak pH was 5.3 +/- 1.8 in the ranitidine group, 5.9 +/- 1.6 in the once daily proton pump inhibitor group, and 6.0 +/- 1.0 in the twice daily proton pump inhibitor group (P = .06). Three (10%) of 28 trough pH measurements in the twice daily proton pump inhibitor group were more acidic than 4 vs 24 (40%) of 60 in the ranitidine group, and 22 (40%) of 56 in the once daily proton pump inhibitor group (P = .02). One (4%) of 27 peak pH measurements in the twice daily proton pump inhibitor group were more acidic than 4 vs 13 (20%) of 61 in the ranitidine group, and 9 (16%) of 56 in the once daily proton pump inhibitor group (P = .12). Three patients (6%; 95% confidence interval, 0.51%-16%) developed upper gastrointestinal bleeding, and 4 patients (8%; 95% confidence interval, 0%-13%) developed ventilator-acquired pneumonia.

CONCLUSIONS

Many critically ill pediatric patients receiving stress ulcer prophylaxis have a trough or peak gastric pH more acidic than 4.

Stress-related mucosal disease in childhood appendicitis

Stress-related mucosal disease (SRMD) is known to occur in critically ill patients both in the adult and paediatric population. Acute appendicitis is the most common surgical emergency in childhood and can precipitate SRMD. This possibility should be kept in mind, particularly in prolonged, complicated episodes. Although clinical complications of SRMD are rare, they may be highly significant in terms of haemorrhage or perforation and result in considerable morbidity or mortality. We provide a thorough review of the incidence, aetiology, role of Helicobacter pylori, risk factors, prophylaxis and management of this condition and describe a series of three cases of ulcerative SRMD in children with complicated appendicitis.

Transfusion therapy in critically ill children

Critically ill children in pediatric intensive care units are commonly indicated for blood transfusion due to many reasons. Children are quite different from adults during growth and development, and that should be taken into consideration. It is very difficult to establish a universal transfusion guideline for critically ill children, especially preterm neonates. Treating underlying disease and targeted replacement therapy are the most effective approaches. Red blood cells are the first choice for replacement therapy in decompensated anemic patients. The critical hemoglobin concentration may be higher in critically ill children for many reasons. Whole blood is used only in the following conditions or diseases: (1) exchange transfusion; (2) after cardiopulmonary bypass; (3) extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; (4) massive transfusion, especially in multiple component deficiency. The characteristics of hemorrhagic diseases are so varied that their therapy should depend on the specific needs associated with the underlying disease. In general, platelet transfusion is not needed when a patient has platelet count greater than 10,000/mm3 and is without active bleeding, platelet functional deficiency or other risk factors such as sepsis. Patients with risk factors or age less than 4 months should be taken into special consideration, and the critical thrombocyte level will be raised. Platelet transfusion is not recommended in patients with immune-mediated thrombocytopenia or thrombocytopenia due to acceleration of platelet destruction without active bleeding or life-threatening hemorrhage. There are many kinds of plasma-derived products, and recombinant factors are commonly used for hemorrhagic patients due to coagulation factor deficiency depending on the characteristics of the diseases. The most effective way to correct disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is to treat the underlying disease. Anticoagulant therapy is very important; heparin is the most common agent used for DIC but the results are usually not satisfactory. Antithrombin III, protein C, or recombinant thrombomodulin has been used successfully to treat this condition. For reducing the risk of organism transmission and adverse reactions resulting from blood transfusion, the following measures have been suggested: (1) replacement therapy using products other than blood (e.g., erythropoietin, iron preparation, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor); (2) special component replacement therapy for specific diseases; (3) autotransfusion; (4) subdividing whole packed blood products into smaller volumes to reduce donor exposure; (5) advances in virus-inactivating procedures. To avoid viral transmission, vapor-heated or pasteurized products and genetic recombinant products are recommended. Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seronegative blood, leukoreduced and/or irradiated blood are recommended for prevention of CMV infection, graft-versus-host-disease and alloimmunization in neonate and immunocompromised patient transfusion. There is no reason to prescribe a plasma product for nutritional supplementation because of the risk of complications. The principle: complications of transfusion must be avoided, the rate of blood exposure should be reduced and the safety of the transfused agents or components should be maintained must always be kept in mind.

Gastrointestinal bleeding in a toddler secondary to chronic renal failure and hyper-gastrinemia

A 3-year-old girl with H. pylori negative duodenal ulcer with hypergastrinemia secondary to chronic renal failure presenting with upper gastrointestinal bleed as the cardinal manifestation is unusual in toddlers and the case is presented for its rarity.

Therapy insight: Prophylaxis of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients

Stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients. Within the past few decades, the incidence of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding has decreased. Prophylaxis of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding, which is aimed at preventing morbidity and mortality, has to be achieved with as few adverse effects as possible. Data indicate that not all critically ill patients need prophylaxis for stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding. The main risk factors associated with clinically important hemorrhage are mechanical ventilation for >48 h, and coagulopathy (thrombocyte count <50/nl, partial thromboplastin time (PTT) >2 times the upper limit of the normal range, international normalized ratio (INR) >1.5). Ranitidine is more effective than sucralfate for the prevention of clinically important bleeding. Immediate-release omeprazole is as effective as cimetidine, and is more efficient at increasing the intragastric pH. As yet, however, there is no firm evidence that any of the drugs used for prophylaxis of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients decrease mortality or the length of hospital stay. When to stop prophylaxis is decided on clinical grounds rather than on the basis of data from clinical studies.

Emergency endoscopy in children

Endoscopy in children has developed along with pediatric gastroenterology over the last four decades. Introduction of endoscopic techniques in adults precedes application in children, and pediatric endoscopists do fewer procedures than their adult counterparts whether routine or as an emergency. Training for pediatric endoscopists therefore needs to be thorough. This article in particular highlights developments in pediatric gastroenterology of importance to emergency procedures.

Hemorrhagic stress ulceration in a case of appendicitis

Hemorrhage from stress ulceration in acutely ill children is seen in association with acute respiratory failure, coagulopathy and Pediatric Risk of Mortality Score of 10 or higher. We report an unusual association of clinically significant hemorrhagic stress ulcer with appendicitis in a pediatric patient.

Prevalence and risk factors of stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill children

AIM: To assess the frequency and the risk factors of stress-induced gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding in children admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

METHODS: The medical records of children aged between 1 month and 15 years admitted to the PICU between January 2002 and December 2002 were reviewed. Demographic data, indications for PICU admission, principle diagnosis, and basic laboratory investigations were recorded. Previously described factors for stress ulcer bleeding (mechanical ventilation, sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, renal insufficiency, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, and intracranial pathology) were used as independent variables in a multivariate analysis.

RESULTS: One hundred and seventy of two hundred and five medical records were eligible for review. The most common indication for PICU admission was respiratory failure (48.8%). Twenty-five children received stress ulcer bleeding prophylaxis with ranitidine. The incidence of stress ulcer bleeding was 43.5%, in which 5.3% were clinically significant bleeding. Only mechanical ventilation and thrombocytopenia were significantly associated with stress ulcer bleeding using the univariate analysis. The odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals were 5.13 (1.86-14.12) and 2.26 (1.07-4.74), respectively. However, the logistic regression analysis showed that mechanical ventilation was the only significant risk factor with the odds ratio of 14.1.

CONCLUSION: The incidence of gastrointestinal bleeding was high in critically ill children. Mechanical ventilation was an important risk factor for gastrointestinal bleeding.

Failure of nasogastric omeprazole suspension in pediatric intensive care patients

OBJECTIVES

To determine the efficacy of nasogastric administration of omeprazole suspension in raising the gastric pH >4 in critically ill pediatric patients and to determine the most appropriate dosing regimen for this indication.

DESIGN

Open-label pharmacodynamic study.

SETTING

Twenty-six bed tertiary-care pediatric intensive care unit.

PATIENTS

Mechanically ventilated children aged 1-18 yrs with an additional risk factor for stress ulcer formation.

INTERVENTIONS

Continuous gastric pH monitoring was performed during administration and dose titration of omeprazole suspension to achieve the goal of gastric pH >4 for greater than 75% of the dosing interval.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Data were collected from 18 patients. Subjects were categorized based on the pharmacologic response to nasogastric administration of 1 mg/kg omeprazole suspension (maximum 20 mg) as rapid (n = 9), late (n = 5), and nonresponders (n = 4). Rapid responders required 0.72 mg/kg per day omeprazole suspension to achieve adequate gastric pH elevation for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Late responders required 1.58 mg/kg per day. Nonresponders did not achieve adequate elevation of gastric pH for stress ulcer prophylaxis.

CONCLUSIONS

Nasogastric administration of omeprazole suspension has variable efficacy in critically ill pediatric patients. Half of the studied subjects either required significant dose titrations to achieve gastric acid suppression or did not respond to nasogastric administration of omeprazole suspension.

Evaluation of Gastric pH and Guaiac Measurements in Neonates Receiving Acid Suppression Therapy During Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To assess gastric pH measurements, evaluate the frequency of guaiac-positive gastric aspirates, and characterize the appearance of gastric aspirates in neonates receiving acid suppression therapy during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO).

DESIGN

Retrospective, observational study.

SETTING

Intensive care unit in a 225-bed tertiary care pediatric referral hospital.

SUBJECTS

Thirteen neonates receiving ECMO.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Gastric pH measurements, guaiac test results, appearance of gastric aspirates, and ranitidine and antacid dosing were recorded. On ECMO day 1, mean+/-SD gastric pH was 4.3+/-2.8 in the five neonates whose pH was documented. Intravenous ranitidine 2.9+/-0.4 mg/kg/day was started in all neonates by ECMO day 2. Gastric pH was less than 4.0 in seven neonates; these low pH values accounted for only 10% of gastric pH measurements. The frequency of positive guaiac results in neonates with pH measurements below 4.0 was 27% compared with 41% for neonates with a gastric pH of 4.0 or greater (p=0.125). Guaiac tests were positive in 69 (42%) aspirates in 11 neonates. Of the guaiac-positive aspirates that had a corresponding pH measurement, 94% had a pH of 4.0 or greater. Guaiac-positive aspirates had evidence of bile (49%), antacid (17%), and blood (7%) in gastric fluid. In six patients, ranitidine dosages were increased to 3.9+/-0.6 mg/kg/day due to low pH and/or positive guaiac results. In two of these neonates, gastric pH remained below 4.0 in nine of 35 pH measurements despite increased ranitidine dosing. Guaiac results remained positive in all subsequent aspirates in five out of six of these neonates. No neonates developed clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB).

CONCLUSIONS

Gastric pH is variable in neonates receiving histamine2-receptor antagonist and antacid therapy during ECMO, and gastric pH of 4.0 or greater does not decrease the frequency of guaiac-positive aspirates. Higher gastric pH measurements are confounded by duodenogastric reflux and the presence of blood and/or antacid in gastric fluid. Motility agents in combination with acid suppression therapy for prevention of UGIB may be necessary in this setting based on gastric pH measurements, appearance of gastric aspirates, and guaiac testing.

Argon plasma coagulation: Clinical experience in pediatric patients

BACKGROUND

Argon plasma coagulation has potential advantages in pediatric endoscopy.

METHODS

Argon plasma coagulation was applied in 13 children (age 0.05-17 years; median 3 years) with significant comorbid conditions including immunosuppression, chemotherapy, acute or chronic organ failure, and coagulopathy. Twelve had bleeding lesions; esophageal granulomatous tissue was coagulated in one. The bleeding lesion was located in the stomach in 9 of 12, the duodenum in 2 of 12 (both with granulomatous tissue), and at an enterocolonic anastomosis in 1 of 12.

OBSERVATIONS

In total, 23 procedures were performed, 22 for bleeding (range 1-5 per patient). Hemostasis was achieved in 8 of 12 with one session. Blood loss and transfusion requirement were reduced in 3 of the other 4 patients. Blood loss was not affected in 1. Bleeding recurred in 3 of 12, and additional procedures were performed in 7 of 12. Granulomatous tissue was completely eradicated in 2 of 3; in one, granulomatous tissue associated with surgical staples was only partially removed. Complications occurred in 2 of 13 patients and included submucosal argon gas and scar formation.

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic argon plasma coagulation is efficacious for hemostasis and tissue ablation in pediatric patients. Minor complications occurred in 17% (2/13) of cases in this series.

Occurrence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in mechanically ventilated pediatric intensive care patients during stress ulcer prophylaxis with sucralfate, ranitidine, and omeprazole

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of sucralfate, ranitidine, and omeprazole use on incidence of ventilatory-associated pneumonia (VAP) and mortality in ventilated pediatric critical care patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This prospective study was conducted at the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) between August 2000 and February 2002. A total of 160 patients who needed mechanical ventilation were randomized into 4 groups according to the computer-generated random number table: group (S), (n = 38) received sucralfate suspension 60 mg/kg/d in 4 doses via the nasogastric tube that was flushed with 10 mL of sterile water; group (R), (n = 42) received ranitidine 2 mg/kg/d intravenously in 4 doses; group (O), (n = 38) received omeprazole 1 mg/kg/d intravenously in 2 doses; and group (P), (n = 42) did not receive any medication for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Treatment was begun within 6 hours of PICU admission.

RESULTS

Seventy patients (44%) developed VAP. VAP rate was 42% (16 of 38) in the sucralfate group, 48% (20 of 42) in the ranitidine group, 45% (17 of 38) in the omeprazole group, and 41% (17 of 42) in the nontreated group. Overall mortality rate was 22% (35 of 160); it was 21% (8 of 38) in the sucralfate group, 23% (10 of 42) in the ranitidine group, 21% (8 of 38) in the omeprazole group, and 21% (9 of 42) in the nontreated group. Our results did not show any difference in the incidence of VAP and mortality in mechanically ventilated PICU patients treated with ranitidine, omeprazole, or sucralfate, or nontreated subjects (P =.963, confidence interval [CI] = 0.958-0.968; P =.988, CI = 0.985-0.991, respectively). Nine patients (5.6%) had macroscopic bleeding. There was no statistically significant difference in macroscopic bleeding between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results did not show any difference in the incidence of VAP, macroscopic stress ulcer bleeding, and mortality in the mechanically ventilated PICU patients treated with ranitidine, omeprazole, or sucralfate, or nontreated subjects. None of the treatment regimens increased VAP compared with the nontreated group. Because there is insufficient data about stress ulcer prophylaxis and VAP in the pediatric age group, more studies with larger numbers of patients are needed.

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding: etiology and management

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is a potentially fatal condition at times due to loss of large volumes of blood. Common sources of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in children include mucosal lesions and variceal hemorrhage (most commonly extra hepatic portal venous obstruction) and, in intensive care settings infections and drugs are other etiological factors associated with bleeding. Massive upper GI bleeding is life threatening and requires immediate resuscitation measures in the form of protection of the airways, oxygen administration, immediate volume replacement with ringer lactate or normal saline, transfusion of whole blood or packed cells and also monitoring the adequacy of volume replacement by central venous lines and urine output. Upper GI endoscopy is an effective initial diagnostic modality to localize the site and cause of bleeding in almost 85-90% of patients. Antacids supplemented by H2- receptor antagonists, proton pump inhibitors and sucralfate are the mainstay in the treatment of bleeding from mucosal lesion. For variceal bleeds, emergency endoscopy is the treatment of choice after initial haemodynamic stabilization of patient. If facilities for endoscopic sclerotherapy (EST) are not available, pharmacotherapy which decreases the portal pressure is almost equally effective and should be resorted to. Shunt surgery is reserved for patients who do not respond to the above therapy. Beta blockers combined with sclerotherapy have been shown to be the most effective therapy in significantly reducing the risk of recurrent rebleeding from varices as well as the death rates, as compared to any other modality of treatment. Based on studies among adult patients, presence of shock, co-morbidities, underlying diagnosis, presence of stigmata of recent hemorrhage on endoscopy and rebleeding are independent risk factors for mortality due to upper GI bleeding. Rebleeding is more likely to occur if the patient has hematemesis, liver disease, coagulopathy, hypotension and or anemia. There is a great need for conducting therapeutic trials as well as identifying predictors of outcome of upper GI bleeding in children to develop evidence based management protocols.

Upper GI bleeding in healthy full-term infants: a case-control study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this case-control study was to evaluate the frequency and the type of mucosal lesions in newborn babies with upper GI bleeding (UGIB), the diagnostic role and safety of upper GI endoscopy, and the recognition of risk factors associated with the hemorrhagic event.

METHODS

A population of 5180 infants born from June, 1988 to May, 1997 was examined. A case was defined as any patient who had UGIB within 4 days of delivery. The diagnosis was made by endoscopic examination in an endoscopy room. The following parameters were determined: amniotic fluid features, funicular blood pH, Apgar index at 5 min, neonatal weight, body length, gestational age, and the presence of other pathologies. Biochemical profiles were also evaluated. Clinical and demographic data of the mothers of the newborn babies were analyzed. Sera of cases and the respective parents were tested for gastrin and pepsinogen. As a control group, 53 full-term healthy infants matched for sex and age were randomly selected from the population of infants born in our pediatric department.

RESULTS

Sixty-four of 5180 newborn babies (1.23%) suffered from UGIB within 26.5 +/- 20 h of life. In 53 of 64 cases (mean age = 24.2 +/- 25.5 h) it was possible to carry out an endoscopic examination. In one case, endoscopy was limited to the esophagus because of the presence of multiple mucosal ulcers and substenosis of the viscus. Esophageal damage was observed in 24/53 patients. The esophageal lesions were isolated in nine cases, and occurred jointly with gastric or duodenal damage in 14 cases and one, respectively. Gastric and duodenal lesions were seen in 43/52 and 1/52 patients, respectively. There were 17 cases of gastric ulcers and one case of duodenal ulcer. Blood clots were observed in 14 gastric ulcer patients; in one case there was evidence of active bleeding at the margins of a gastric ulcer. There was no significant difference with regard to the demographic and clinical characteristics of the cases and controls. Median values of serum gastrin of the cases and controls were similar. Median serum pepsinogen was significantly higher in the case group.

CONCLUSIONS

UGIB in the newborn babies is often associated with clinically relevant mucosal lesions of the upper GI tract. The evolution, after treatment with antisecretory drugs, is generally rapid and favorable, with clinical recovery usually obtained within 24-48 h. The higher serum pepsinogen levels may only represent a significant risk factor of mucosal lesions and complications.

The impact of clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding acquired in a pediatric intensive care unit

OBJECTIVE

To determine the clinical and economic impact attributable to upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB) acquired in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU).

DESIGN

Prospective case-control-within-cohort study.

SETTING

PICU at a university hospital.

PATIENTS

All consecutive patients over a 1-yr period.

METHODS

All UGIB (hematemesis or blood in gastric tube) were reported. A UGIB was qualified as clinically significant (CS-UGIB) if a panel of reviewers assessed that a complication (decreased hemoglobin concentration, transfusion, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, surgery, or death) was attributed to it. A UGIB was qualified as clinically nonsignificant (NS-UGIB) if none of these complications was attributed to it. The Ø-UGIB group comprised patients without UGIB. Pairing between the three groups was done according to these criteria: death or survival, Pediatric Risk of Mortality Score on admission, respiratory failure, coagulopathy, and age. Data considered for the impact analysis was prospectively monitored during the stay in PICU. Costs were estimated in Canadian dollars (1999) as follows: costs of stay + medical staff + ventilation + red blood cell transfusions.

RESULTS

The cohort included 1006 admissions. Sixteen cases of CS-UGIB were paired to 13 cases of NS-UGIB and 32 cases of Ø-UGIB. Compared with the Ø-UGIB group and the NS-UGIB group, the CS-UGIB group showed a significantly (p < 0.05) higher rate of red blood cell transfusions, duration of ventilation, length of stay in PICU, and a lower hemoglobin level. There was no difference between the NS-UGIB group and the Ø-UGIB group. The cost analysis demonstrated a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the CS-UGIB group (20,062.67 Can dollars/patient per stay) and the other groups (NS-UGIB, 6104.77 Can dollars/patient per stay; Ø-UGIB, 5457.25 Can dollars/patient per stay).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates a significant clinical and economic impact of CS-UGIB in PICU, although no impact was detected for NS-UGIB. Further studies on the benefit of UGIB prophylaxis for critically ill children with risk factors for CS-UGIB are needed.