Metabolic and calorigenic effects of dopexamine in healthy volunteers

Glucose metabolism and catecholamines

Until now, catecholamines were the drugs of choice to treat hypotension during shock states. Catecholamines, however, also have marked metabolic effects, particularly on glucose metabolism, and the degree of this metabolic response is directly related to the beta2-adrenoceptor activity of the individual compound used. Under physiologic conditions, infusing catecholamine is associated with enhanced rates of aerobic glycolysis (resulting in adenosine triphosphate production), glucose release (both from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis), and inhibition of insulin-mediated glycogenesis. Consequently, hyperglycemia and hyperlactatemia are the hallmarks of this metabolic response. Under pathophysiologic conditions, the metabolic effects of catecholamines are less predictable because of changes in receptor affinity and density and in drug kinetics and the metabolic capacity of the major gluconeogenic organs, both resulting from the disease per se and the ongoing treatment. It is also well-established that shock states are characterized by a hypermetabolic condition with insulin resistance and increased oxygen demands, which coincide with both compromised tissue microcirculatory perfusion and mitochondrial dysfunction. This, in turn, causes impaired glucose utilization and may lead to inadequate glucose supply and, ultimately, metabolic failure. Based on the landmark studies on intensive insulin use, a crucial role is currently attributed to glucose homeostasis. This article reviews the effects of the various catecholamines on glucose utilization, both under physiologic conditions, as well as during shock states. Because, to date (to our knowledge), no patient data are available, results from relevant animal experiments are discussed. In addition, potential strategies are outlined to influence the catecholamine-induced effects on glucose homeostasis.

The cardiopulmonary effects of dobutamine and norepinephrine in isoflurane-anesthetized foals

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the cardiovascular effects of norepinephrine (NE) and dobutamine (DB) in isoflurane-anesthetized foals.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective laboratory study.

METHODS

Norepinephrine (0.05, 0.10, 0.20, and 0.40 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) and dobutamine (2.5, 5.0, and 10 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) were alternately administered to seven healthy, 1- to 2-week-old isoflurane-anesthetized foals. Arterial and pulmonary arterial blood pressure, right atrial pressure, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, heart rate, body temperature, cardiac output, arterial and mixed venous blood pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, partial pressure of oxygen [arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO(2)) and mixed venous partial pressure of oxygen (PvO(2))], and packed cell volume were measured. Standard base excess, bicarbonate concentration, systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, cardiac index (CI), stroke volume, left and right stroke work indices, oxygen delivery (DO(2)), consumption, and extraction were calculated. Results Norepinephrine infusion resulted in significant increases in arterial and pulmonary arterial pressure, systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance indices, and PaO(2); heart rate was decreased. Dobutamine infusion resulted in significant increases in heart rate, stroke volume index, CI, and arterial and pulmonary arterial blood pressure. Systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance indices were decreased while the ventricular stroke work indices increased. The PaO(2) decreased while DO(2) and oxygen consumption increased. Oxygen extraction decreased and PvO(2) increased.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Norepinephrine primarily augments arterial blood pressure while decreasing CI. Dobutamine primarily augments CI with only modest increases in arterial blood pressure. Both NE and DB could be useful in the hemodynamic management of anesthetized foals.

Metabolic effects of vasoactive agents

After adequate volume resuscitation, the mainstay of therapy in critically ill patients with shock is treatment with vasoactive substances to restore haemodynamics or to improve regional perfusion. These agents include adrenoceptor agonists with inotropic combined with either vasoconstricting or vasodilating effects, and predominantly vasodilating drugs such as prostacyclin and related compounds. However, vasoactive agents not only affect the cardiovascular system, but also have profound metabolic effects. The interdependence of vasoactive drugs with metabolism may be relevant regarding adequate oxygen and substrate delivery to cover actual organ needs. Therefore, the profiles of these metabolic effects have to be considered during their therapeutic administration.

Effects of dopexamine in a rat model of supracoeliac aortic cross-clamping and declamping

This experimental study in rats was designed to demonstrate effects of dopexamine (3 microg kg(-1) min(-1), n = 6) or physiologic saline solution (n = 6) on systemic as well as regional perfusion during 30 min of supracoeliac aortic cross-clamping and during 180 min of reperfusion following declamping. Rats were surgically instrumented with arterial, right atrial and portal venous catheters, ultrasonic flow probes around the abdominal aorta, superior mesenteric and carotid artery, and a paediatric tonometer for intestinal mucosal PCO(2) measurement. During 120 min of reperfusion, fluid resuscitation was titrated to keep abdominal aortic blood flow above 80% of baseline values. We found that during cross-clamping, values of arterial lactate (p = 0.002) and intestinal tonometric PCO(2) (p = 0.018) were higher in the dopexamine group than in the control group.

Different response of oxygen consumption and cardiac output to various endogenous and synthetic catecholamines in awake dogs

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether catecholamines with different adrenergic receptor affinities are characterized by individual relationships between cardiac output (Q) and oxygen consumption (VO2).

DESIGN

Comparison of the dose-effect relationships and Q/VO2 relationships of four different catecholamines in the same awake dogs.

SETTING

University research department of experimental anesthesiology.

SUBJECTS

Ten trained, healthy dogs in the basal metabolic state with chronically implanted ultrasonic flow transducers around the pulmonary artery for the continuous measurement of cardiac output.

INTERVENTIONS

Increasing doses of norepinephrine, epinephrine, dobutamine, or dopexamine were infused in a randomly varied sequence on separate days until VO2 and Q reached a maximum.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

VO2 was measured by indirect calorimetry, and Q was measured via the pulmonary artery by ultrasonic flowmetry. In healthy dogs, catecholamines increased both VO2 and Q in a dose-dependent manner until a plateau was reached when VO2 had doubled and Q had quadrupled compared with baseline conditions. Regardless of the catecholamine, the resulting Q/VO2 relationships were linear up to the maximal effects, but their slopes (s) differed significantly between agents (p < .05, paired sign test) and increased approximately three-fold in the order norepinephrine (s = 34), epinephrine (s = 54), dobutamine (s = 86), and dopexamine (s = 105). Except for norepinephrine, the catecholamines also increased oxygen delivery more than VO2, so that O2 extraction decreased to 40% below baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

Catecholamines are characterized by linear Q/VO2 relationships with drug-specific slopes. All agents (except norepinephrine) increased oxygen delivery more than oxygen demand. For the practice of catecholamine therapy, our experiments imply that synthetic agents such as dobutamine and particularly dopexamine may be preferred in the treatment of low cardiac output states because they increase Q with the least metabolic effects.

The effect of dopexamine on regional tissue oxygenation, systemic inflammation and amino acid exchange in major abdominal surgery

BACKGROUND

Beta-adrenergic agents are frequently used to improve cardiac performance in surgical and intensive care patients. Beta-adrenergic agents have metabolic and anti-inflammatory effects in addition to their cardiovascular effects. Splanchnic metabolic activity increases in response to surgery and inflammation. Dopexamine is believed to favor blood flow distribution to the splanchnic region.

METHODS

We investigated the effect of dopexamine, started before major abdominal surgery, on postoperative patterns of systemic and regional blood flow, metabolic response, and markers of inflammation. Twenty-one patients undergoing major abdominal surgery were studied. All patients were stabilized preoperatively to predefined hemodynamic endpoints with fluids. After preoperative measurement of systemic and splanchnic oxygen transport and splanchnic lactate, glutamine and alanine exchange and blood levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), the patients were randomized to receive an infusion of dopexamine at 0.5 microg kg(-1) min(-1) (group 1) or 2.0 microg kg(-1) min(-1) (group 2) or placebo. Measurements were repeated at 6 h and 24 h after the end of the operation and the blood levels of cytokines also at 36 h postoperatively.

RESULTS

Dopexamine evoked an increase in cardiac index preoperatively. Postoperatively, there was no difference between the groups in systemic and regional hemodynamics or oxygen transport: cardiac index, splanchnic blood flow and oxygen delivery increased similarly in each group. Accordingly, systemic oxygen extraction decreased. Glutamine, alanine and lactate exchange did not differ between the groups. The only metabolic change was an increased splanchnic uptake of alanine, which also was unaffected by dopexamine. There was no difference between the groups in TNF and IL-6 levels; TNF level did not change, while IL-6 level increased in response to surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Dopexamine, when added to a preoperative stabilization protocol with fluids, did not augment the postoperative hemodynamic response, and had no effect on postoperative metabolic and inflammatory responses.

Low-dose dopexamine in patients undergoing hemihepatectomy: an evaluation of effects on reduction of hepatic dysfunction and ischaemic liver injury

BACKGROUND

Hepatic dysfunction is a common problem in patients after hemihepatectomy. Treatment with low-dose dopamine has been shown to be beneficial in hemihepatectomy patients. We hypothesized that dopexamine, a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine, due to its specific pharmocodynamic profile may be more effective in reducing hidden ischaemic episodes in the hepato-splanchnic region during and after temporary total cross-clamping of hepatic inflow in these patients.

METHODS

The effects of low-dose dopexamine on hepatic venous haemoglobin oxygen saturation (ShvO2), hepatic venous lactate level, monoethylglycinxylid (MEGX) formation, hepatic synthetic function and indicators for hepatic cell damage were studied during hemihepatectomy and for 16 h postoperatively in hemihepatectomy patients and compared to those of low-dose dopamine. In a prospective, double-blind clinical study 20 patients received randomly either dopexamine (DPX) 0.5 microg kg(-1) min(-1) (n=10) or dopamine (DO) 2.5 microg kg(-1) min(-1) (n= 10). Infusions were started after induction of anaesthesia and continued 16 h postoperatively. Hepatic vein, radial and pulmonary artery were catheterized. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, after total cross-clamping of hepatic inflow, and at 2 h and 16 h postoperatively.

RESULTS

There were no differences in systemic haemodynamics, oxygenation, ShvO2, serum aminotransferases or MEGX levels between the groups. At 16 h postoperatively prothrombin and antithrombin III levels were significantly lower while hepatic venous lactate was significantly higher in the DPX group compared to the DO group.

CONCLUSION

In patients undergoing hemihepatectomy, we could not reveal superior hepatoprotective effects of low-dose dopexamine compared to low-dose dopamine.