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Rakofsky JJ, Lucido MJ, Dunlop BW. All studies are not created equal: A systematic narrative review of bipolar depression clinical trial inclusion/exclusion rules and baseline severity scores. J Affect Disord 2023; 333:130-139. [PMID: 37080495 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several bipolar depression treatment guidelines have been designed to assist clinicians with medication selection. When ranking medications, none explicitly considered the inclusion/exclusion criteria or baseline severity scores of the reviewed clinical trials. This article aimed to determine if sufficient differences exist in these variables to justify their consideration when designing treatment guidelines. METHODS Using Ovid and PubMed databases in May and September 2022, all published, short-term cross-over or parallel-group design studies comparing second generation antipsychotics (SGAs), mood stabilizers, or antidepressants versus placebo in bipolar depressed patients were identified. Included studies must have enrolled adult bipolar I/II depressed patients, randomized patients into two or more treatment groups, utilized a double-blind, prospective design written in English, and had primary outcome results that were statistically significant in favor of the investigational treatment. RESULTS Thirty studies met eligibility criteria, comprising a total of 8791 patients. Among those studies, there were seventeen antipsychotic trials, six lithium trials, one lamotrigine trial, three valproate trials, two carbamazepine trials, and two antidepressant trials. The analysis revealed substantial differences among the studies. Although this was seen among all the different drug classes, these differences are clearest when comparing the lithium trials to those of the SGAs. LIMITATIONS Limitations included the selection of severity scores from the treatment arm with the most severe score and the exclusive focus on mood stabilizers, antidepressants, and SGAs. CONCLUSIONS Severity of the enrolled patient sample and treatment-resistance should be considered in addition to other factors when ranking medications in bipolar depression treatment guidelines.
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Rakofsky JJ, Lucido MJ, Dunlop BW. Lithium in the treatment of acute bipolar depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord 2022; 308:268-280. [PMID: 35429528 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate lithium in the treatment of acute bipolar depression. METHODS We conducted a systematic literature review for: 1) cross-over or parallel-group design studies comparing lithium response in bipolar versus unipolar depressed patients, and 2) parallel group studies of bipolar depressed patients comparing lithium versus placebo or other psychotropics. Meta-analyses using response rate as the primary outcome were conducted to evaluate lithium's efficacy. RESULTS The literature search yielded 947 records. Ultimately, 17 studies were included, totaling 1545 patients, including 676 who received lithium. The overall summary effects reveal that there were no statistically significant differences between lithium versus antidepressants or placebo, however, lithium performed numerically worse than antidepressants (RR = 0.61; 95%CI, 0.37-1.02; p = 0.06) but better than placebo (RR = 1.18; 95%CI, 0.99-1.41; p = 0.07). The specificity of lithium for bipolar versus unipolar depression was not supported in the primary analysis of all trials, though an analysis limited to double-blinded, monotherapy, cross-over studies revealed a statistically significant result supporting lithium's efficacy for those with bipolar depression. LIMITATIONS Limitations include study selection rules, the use of response rates rather than remission rates or continuous score outcomes, and the small number of studies included in each meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS These meta-analyses do not support lithium as a first-line treatment for acute bipolar depression. However, the bipolar vs. unipolar sensitivity analysis and the modest, though non-significant advantage over placebo suggest lithium may still be a viable treatment option. Larger and more rigorously-designed studies are needed to determine lithium's full range of efficacy relative to placebo and other psychotropics.
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3
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Pharmacogenomics of Lithium Response in Bipolar Disorder. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14040287. [PMID: 33804842 PMCID: PMC8063790 DOI: 10.3390/ph14040287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite being the most widely studied mood stabilizer, researchers have not confirmed a mechanism for lithium’s therapeutic efficacy in Bipolar Disorder (BD). Pharmacogenomic applications may be clinically useful in the future for identifying lithium-responsive patients and facilitating personalized treatment. Six genome-wide association studies (GWAS) reviewed here present evidence of genetic variations related to lithium responsivity and side effect expression. Variants were found on genes regulating the glutamate system, including GAD-like gene 1 (GADL1) and GRIA2 gene, a mutually-regulated target of lithium. In addition, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) discovered on SESTD1 may account for lithium’s exceptional ability to permeate cell membranes and mediate autoimmune and renal effects. Studies also corroborated the importance of epigenetics and stress regulation on lithium response, finding variants on long, non-coding RNA genes and associations between response and genetic loading for psychiatric comorbidities. Overall, the precision medicine model of stratifying patients based on phenotype seems to derive genotypic support of a separate clinical subtype of lithium-responsive BD. Results have yet to be expounded upon and should therefore be interpreted with caution.
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Taylor RW, Marwood L, Oprea E, DeAngel V, Mather S, Valentini B, Zahn R, Young AH, Cleare AJ. Pharmacological Augmentation in Unipolar Depression: A Guide to the Guidelines. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 23:587-625. [PMID: 32402075 PMCID: PMC7710919 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pharmacological augmentation is a recommended strategy for patients with treatment-resistant depression. A range of guidelines provide advice on treatment selection, prescription, monitoring and discontinuation, but variation in the content and quality of guidelines may limit the provision of objective, evidence-based care. This is of importance given the side effect burden and poorer long-term outcomes associated with polypharmacy and treatment-resistant depression. This review provides a definitive overview of pharmacological augmentation recommendations by assessing the quality of guidelines for depression and comparing the recommendations made. METHODS A systematic literature search identified current treatment guidelines for depression published in English. Guidelines were quality assessed using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II tool. Data relating to the prescription of pharmacological augmenters were extracted from those developed with sufficient rigor, and the included recommendations compared. RESULTS Total of 1696 records were identified, 19 guidelines were assessed for quality, and 10 were included. Guidelines differed in their quality, the stage at which augmentation was recommended, the agents included, and the evidence base cited. Lithium and atypical antipsychotics were recommended by all 10, though the specific advice was not consistent. Of the 15 augmenters identified, no others were universally recommended. CONCLUSIONS This review provides a comprehensive overview of current pharmacological augmentation recommendations for major depression and will support clinicians in selecting appropriate treatment guidance. Although some variation can be accounted for by date of guideline publication, and limited evidence from clinical trials, there is a clear need for greater consistency across guidelines to ensure patients receive consistent evidence-based care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael W Taylor
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London & Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lindsey Marwood
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emanuella Oprea
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Valeria DeAngel
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London & Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Mather
- Oxford Health NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Beatrice Valentini
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Roland Zahn
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London & Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Allan H Young
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London & Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony J Cleare
- The Centre for Affective Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, De Crespigny Park, London, United Kingdom
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- National Institute for Health Research Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, South London & Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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5
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Barroilhet SA, Ghaemi SN. When and how to use lithium. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2020; 142:161-172. [PMID: 32526812 DOI: 10.1111/acps.13202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lithium is an old proven medication, but it is infrequently used in current practice. This review examines evidence for its benefits and risks and provides clinical guidance to its use. METHOD Narrative review. RESULTS Besides its benefit in bipolar illness, lithium has important underappreciated proven benefits in prevention of unipolar depression and suicide. Emerging data support neurobiological benefits for cognition and possible dementia prevention. Likely benefits also exist in low doses for mood temperaments (cyclothymia and hyperthymia). High doses (over 1.0 mmol/L) should be avoided since they increase side effects, complications associated with long-term use, and risk of toxicity. Conversely, low dosing can be legitimate, especially for suicide and dementia prevention. Nuisance side effects of lithium may affect adherence, and medically serious side-effects can occur. Managing strategies are available for side effects. CONCLUSION Lithium is the most effective medication in psychiatry, because it has disease-modifying, not just symptomatic, effects. It is effective not only for bipolar illness but also for prevention of suicide, episodes of unipolar depression, mood temperaments, and possibly dementia. Its many benefits need better appreciation, while lowered dosing can reduce risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Barroilhet
- Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University Psychiatric Clinic, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Psychiatry, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S N Ghaemi
- Psychiatry, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.,Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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6
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Wang G, Han C, Liu CY, Chan S, Kato T, Tan W, Zhang L, Feng Y, Ng CH. Management of Treatment-Resistant Depression in Real-World Clinical Practice Settings Across Asia. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2020; 16:2943-2959. [PMID: 33299316 PMCID: PMC7721287 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s264813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Consensus is lacking on the management of treatment-resistant depression (TRD), resulting in significant variations on how TRD patients are being managed in real-world practice. A survey explored how clinicians managed TRD across Asia, followed by an expert panel that interpreted the survey results and provided recommendations on how TRD could be managed in real-world clinical settings. METHODS Between March and July 2018, 246 clinicians from Hong Kong, Japan, Mainland China, South Korea, and Taiwan completed a survey related to their treatment approaches for TRD. RESULTS The survey showed physicians using more polytherapy (71%) compared to maintaining patients on monotherapy (29%). The most commonly (23%) administered polytherapy involved antidepressant augmentation with antipsychotics that 19% of physicians also indicated as their most important approach for managing TRD. The highest number of physicians (34%) ranked switching to another class of antidepressants as their most important approach, while 16% and 9% chose antidepressant combinations and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), respectively. CONCLUSION Taking into account the survey results, the expert panel made general recommendations on the management of TRD. TRD partial-responders to antidepressants should be considered for augmentation with second-generation antipsychotics. For non-responders, switching to another class of antidepressants ought to be considered. TRD patients achieving remission with acute treatment should consider continuing their antidepressants for at least another 6 months to prevent relapse. ECT is a treatment consideration for patients with severe depression or persistent symptoms despite multiple adequate trials of antidepressants. Physicians should also consider the response, tolerability and adherence to the current and previous antidepressants, the severity of symptoms, comorbidities, concomitant medications, preferences, and cost when choosing a TRD treatment approach for each individual patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorder & Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Changsu Han
- Department of Psychiatry, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Chia-Yih Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Medical Center, and Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Sandra Chan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tadafumi Kato
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wilson Tan
- Regional Medical Affairs, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson and Johnson, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lili Zhang
- Medical Affairs, Xian Janssen Pharmaceutical Ltd, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Feng
- Medical Affairs, Xian Janssen Pharmaceutical Ltd, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chee H Ng
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Davies P, Ijaz S, Williams CJ, Kessler D, Lewis G, Wiles N. Pharmacological interventions for treatment-resistant depression in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 12:CD010557. [PMID: 31846068 PMCID: PMC6916711 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd010557.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although antidepressants are often a first-line treatment for adults with moderate to severe depression, many people do not respond adequately to medication, and are said to have treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Little evidence exists to inform the most appropriate 'next step' treatment for these people. OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness of standard pharmacological treatments for adults with TRD. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Controlled Trials Register (CCMDCTR) (March 2016), CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO and Web of Science (31 December 2018), the World Health Organization trials portal and ClinicalTrials.gov for unpublished and ongoing studies, and screened bibliographies of included studies and relevant systematic reviews without date or language restrictions. SELECTION CRITERIA Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) with participants aged 18 to 74 years with unipolar depression (based on criteria from DSM-IV-TR or earlier versions, International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10, Feighner criteria or Research Diagnostic Criteria) who had not responded to a minimum of four weeks of antidepressant treatment at a recommended dose. Interventions were: (1) increasing the dose of antidepressant monotherapy; (2) switching to a different antidepressant monotherapy; (3) augmenting treatment with another antidepressant; (4) augmenting treatment with a non-antidepressant. All were compared with continuing antidepressant monotherapy. We excluded studies of non-standard pharmacological treatments (e.g. sex hormones, vitamins, herbal medicines and food supplements). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two reviewers used standard Cochrane methods to extract data, assess risk of bias, and resolve disagreements. We analysed continuous outcomes with mean difference (MD) or standardised mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI). For dichotomous outcomes, we calculated a relative risk (RR) and 95% CI. Where sufficient data existed, we conducted meta-analyses using random-effects models. MAIN RESULTS We included 10 RCTs (2731 participants). Nine were conducted in outpatient settings and one in both in- and outpatients. Mean age of participants ranged from 42 - 50.2 years, and most were female. One study investigated switching to, or augmenting current antidepressant treatment with, another antidepressant (mianserin). Another augmented current antidepressant treatment with the antidepressant mirtazapine. Eight studies augmented current antidepressant treatment with a non-antidepressant (either an anxiolytic (buspirone) or an antipsychotic (cariprazine; olanzapine; quetiapine (3 studies); or ziprasidone (2 studies)). We judged most studies to be at a low or unclear risk of bias. Only one of the included studies was not industry-sponsored. There was no evidence of a difference in depression severity when current treatment was switched to mianserin (MD on Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) = -1.8, 95% CI -5.22 to 1.62, low-quality evidence)) compared with continuing on antidepressant monotherapy. Nor was there evidence of a difference in numbers dropping out of treatment (RR 2.08, 95% CI 0.94 to 4.59, low-quality evidence; dropouts 38% in the mianserin switch group; 18% in the control). Augmenting current antidepressant treatment with mianserin was associated with an improvement in depression symptoms severity scores from baseline (MD on HAM-D -4.8, 95% CI -8.18 to -1.42; moderate-quality evidence). There was no evidence of a difference in numbers dropping out (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.38 to 2.72; low-quality evidence; 19% dropouts in the mianserin-augmented group; 38% in the control). When current antidepressant treatment was augmented with mirtazapine, there was little difference in depressive symptoms (MD on Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) -1.7, 95% CI -4.03 to 0.63; high-quality evidence) and no evidence of a difference in dropout numbers (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.15 to 1.62; dropouts 2% in mirtazapine-augmented group; 3% in the control). Augmentation with buspirone provided no evidence of a benefit in terms of a reduction in depressive symptoms (MD on Montgomery and Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) -0.30, 95% CI -9.48 to 8.88; low-quality evidence) or numbers of drop-outs (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.23 to 1.53; low-quality evidence; dropouts 11% in buspirone-augmented group; 19% in the control). Severity of depressive symptoms reduced when current treatment was augmented with cariprazine (MD on MADRS -1.50, 95% CI -2.74 to -0.25; high-quality evidence), olanzapine (MD on HAM-D -7.9, 95% CI -16.76 to 0.96; low-quality evidence; MD on MADRS -12.4, 95% CI -22.44 to -2.36; low-quality evidence), quetiapine (SMD -0.32, 95% CI -0.46 to -0.18; I2 = 6%, high-quality evidence), or ziprasidone (MD on HAM-D -2.73, 95% CI -4.53 to -0.93; I2 = 0, moderate-quality evidence) compared with continuing on antidepressant monotherapy. However, a greater number of participants dropped out when antidepressant monotherapy was augmented with an antipsychotic (cariprazine RR 1.68, 95% CI 1.16 to 2.41; quetiapine RR 1.57, 95% CI: 1.14 to 2.17; ziprasidone RR 1.60, 95% CI 1.01 to 2.55) compared with antidepressant monotherapy, although estimates for olanzapine augmentation were imprecise (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.04 to 2.69). Dropout rates ranged from 10% to 39% in the groups augmented with an antipsychotic, and from 12% to 23% in the comparison groups. The most common reasons for dropping out were side effects or adverse events. We also summarised data about response and remission rates (based on changes in depressive symptoms) for included studies, along with data on social adjustment and social functioning, quality of life, economic outcomes and adverse events. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS A small body of evidence shows that augmenting current antidepressant therapy with mianserin or with an antipsychotic (cariprazine, olanzapine, quetiapine or ziprasidone) improves depressive symptoms over the short-term (8 to 12 weeks). However, this evidence is mostly of low or moderate quality due to imprecision of the estimates of effects. Improvements with antipsychotics need to be balanced against the increased likelihood of dropping out of treatment or experiencing an adverse event. Augmentation of current antidepressant therapy with a second antidepressant, mirtazapine, does not produce a clinically important benefit in reduction of depressive symptoms (high-quality evidence). The evidence regarding the effects of augmenting current antidepressant therapy with buspirone or switching current antidepressant treatment to mianserin is currently insufficient. Further trials are needed to increase the certainty of these findings and to examine long-term effects of treatment, as well as the effectiveness of other pharmacological treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippa Davies
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
- University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation TrustNIHR ARC WestBristolUK
| | - Sharea Ijaz
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
- University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation TrustNIHR ARC WestBristolUK
| | - Catherine J Williams
- University of BristolSchool of Social and Community Medicine39 Whatley RoadBristolUKBS8 2PS
| | - David Kessler
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
| | - Glyn Lewis
- UCLUCL Division of Psychiatry67‐73 Riding House StLondonUKW1W 7EJ
| | - Nicola Wiles
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
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Lithium continuation therapy following ketamine in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression: a randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:1812-1819. [PMID: 30858518 PMCID: PMC6784998 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-019-0365-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine is associated with rapid but transient antidepressant effects in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression (TRD). Based on work suggesting that ketamine and lithium may share overlapping mechanisms of action, we tested lithium compared to placebo as a continuation strategy following ketamine in subjects with TRD. Participants who met all eligibility criteria and showed at least an initial partial response to a single intravenous infusion of ketamine 0.5 mg/kg were randomized under double-blind conditions to lithium or matching placebo before receiving an additional three infusions of ketamine. Subsequent to the ketamine treatments, participants remained on lithium or placebo during a double-blind continuation phase. The primary study outcome was depression severity as measured by the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale compared between the two groups at Study Day 28, which occurred ~2 weeks following the final ketamine of four infusions. Forty-seven participants with TRD were enrolled in the study and underwent an initial ketamine infusion, of whom 34 participants were deemed to have at least a partial antidepressant response and were eligible for randomization. Comparison between treatment with daily oral lithium (n = 18) or matching placebo (n = 16) at the primary outcome showed no difference in depression severity between groups (t32 = 0.11, p = 0.91, 95% CI [-7.87, 8.76]). There was no difference between lithium and placebo in continuing the acute antidepressant response to ketamine. The identification of a safe and effective strategy for preventing depression relapse following an acute course of ketamine treatment remains an important goal for future studies.
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Kin K, Yasuhara T, Kawauchi S, Kameda M, Hosomoto K, Tomita Y, Umakoshi M, Kuwahara K, Kin I, Kidani N, Morimoto J, Sasaki T, Date I. Lithium counteracts depressive behavior and augments the treatment effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in treatment-resistant depressed rats. Brain Res 2019; 1717:52-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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10
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Tondo L, Alda M, Bauer M, Bergink V, Grof P, Hajek T, Lewitka U, Licht RW, Manchia M, Müller-Oerlinghausen B, Nielsen RE, Selo M, Simhandl C, Baldessarini RJ. Clinical use of lithium salts: guide for users and prescribers. Int J Bipolar Disord 2019; 7:16. [PMID: 31328245 PMCID: PMC6643006 DOI: 10.1186/s40345-019-0151-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lithium has been used clinically for 70 years, mainly to treat bipolar disorder. Competing treatments and exaggerated impressions about complexity and risks of lithium treatment have led to its declining use in some countries, encouraging this update about its safe clinical use. We conducted a nonsystematic review of recent research reports and developed consensus among international experts on the use of lithium to treat major mood disorders, aiming for a simple but authoritative guide for patients and prescribers. MAIN TEXT We summarized recommendations concerning safe clinical use of lithium salts to treat major mood disorders, including indications, dosing, clinical monitoring, adverse effects and use in specific circumstances including during pregnancy and for the elderly. CONCLUSIONS Lithium continues as the standard and most extensively evaluated treatment for bipolar disorder, especially for long-term prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Tondo
- International Consortium for Research on Mood & Psychotic Disorders, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Lucio Bini Mood Disorders Centers, Lucio Bini Center, Via Cavalcanti 28, 09128, Cagliari and Rome, Italy.
| | - Martin Alda
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Michael Bauer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Carl Gustav Carus University Hospital Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Veerle Bergink
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Grof
- Mood Disorders Center of Ottawa and Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Tomas Hajek
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Ute Lewitka
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Carl Gustav Carus University Hospital Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Rasmus W Licht
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark.,Aalborg University Hospital-Psychiatry, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Mirko Manchia
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.,Section of Psychiatry, Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - René E Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark.,Aalborg University Hospital-Psychiatry, Aalborg, Denmark
| | | | - Christian Simhandl
- Medical Faculty, Bipolar Center, Sigmund Freud Private University, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Ross J Baldessarini
- International Consortium for Research on Mood & Psychotic Disorders, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Insulin-stimulated mTOR activation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells associated with early treatment response to lithium augmentation in rodent model of antidepressant-resistance. Transl Psychiatry 2019; 9:113. [PMID: 30877268 PMCID: PMC6420640 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0434-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Lithium has been shown to have some therapeutic efficacy as an adjunctive treatment for intractable forms of major depression. Activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) have been implicated in its putative mechanisms of action. These proteins are integral components of the insulin signaling pathway, which may serve as a critical co-regulator of drug action. Utilizing an animal model of tricyclic antidepressant resistance, we investigated the relationship between insulin signaling and antidepressant response to lithium augmentation. Pre-treatment with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH 100 µg/day i.p.) for 14 days effectively blocked the immobility-reducing effects of an acute dose of imipramine (10 mg/kg i.p.) in the forced swim test (FST). Lithium augmentation (100 mg/kg i.p.) rescued the antidepressant-like effects of imipramine in this model. Total and phosphorylated (p) levels of protein kinase B (Akt), mTOR, and GSK3β protein were quantified in the infralimbic cortex (ILPFC) following FST stress via Western blot. Levels of mTOR and pmTOR were further quantified in isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) following insulin stimulation (10 mg/mL for 5 min) via ELISA. Elevated levels of phosphorylated insulin signaling proteins were present in the ILPFC of ACTH-pretreated animals that received both imipramine and lithium, together with a concurrent increase in mTOR activation in PBMCs. Large correlations were observed between immobility time and insulin-stimulated mTOR levels in PBMCs. We propose that PBMC insulin challenge may be a useful probe for predicting antidepressant response to lithium administration, and potentially other therapies acting via similar mechanisms of action.
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Twenty years after ‘Listening to Prozac but hearing placebo’. Do we hear placebo even louder? HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY REPORT 2019. [DOI: 10.5114/hpr.2019.83383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Ahmed M, Faisal M, Ihsan A, Naseer MM. Fluorescent organic nanoparticles (FONs) as convenient probes for metal ion detection in aqueous medium. Analyst 2019; 144:2480-2497. [DOI: 10.1039/c8an01801d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescent organic nanoparticle (FON)-based chemosensors are emerging as a valuable tool for the fast and accurate detection of metal ions in aqueous media. In this review, we highlight the recent developments in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukhtiar Ahmed
- Department of Chemistry
- Quaid-i-Azam University
- Islamabad 45320
- Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Faisal
- Department of Chemistry
- Quaid-i-Azam University
- Islamabad 45320
- Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Ihsan
- Nanobiotechnology group
- National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE)
- Faisalabad
- Pakistan
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Ijaz S, Davies P, Williams CJ, Kessler D, Lewis G, Wiles N. Psychological therapies for treatment-resistant depression in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 5:CD010558. [PMID: 29761488 PMCID: PMC6494651 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd010558.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antidepressants are a first-line treatment for adults with moderate to severe major depression. However, many people prescribed antidepressants for depression don't respond fully to such medication, and little evidence is available to inform the most appropriate 'next step' treatment for such patients, who may be referred to as having treatment-resistant depression (TRD). National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidance suggests that the 'next step' for those who do not respond to antidepressants may include a change in the dose or type of antidepressant medication, the addition of another medication, or the start of psychotherapy. Different types of psychotherapies may be used for TRD; evidence on these treatments is available but has not been collated to date.Along with the sister review of pharmacological therapies for TRD, this review summarises available evidence for the effectiveness of psychotherapies for adults (18 to 74 years) with TRD with the goal of establishing the best 'next step' for this group. OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness of psychotherapies for adults with TRD. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Controlled Trials Register (until May 2016), along with CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO via OVID (until 16 May 2017). We also searched the World Health Organization (WHO) trials portal (ICTRP) and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify unpublished and ongoing studies. There were no date or language restrictions. SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) with participants aged 18 to 74 years diagnosed with unipolar depression that had not responded to minimum four weeks of antidepressant treatment at a recommended dose. We excluded studies of drug intolerance. Acceptable diagnoses of unipolar depression were based onthe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) or earlier versions, International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10, Feighner criteria, or Research Diagnostic Criteria. We included the following comparisons.1. Any psychological therapy versus antidepressant treatment alone, or another psychological therapy.2. Any psychological therapy given in addition to antidepressant medication versus antidepressant treatment alone, or a psychological therapy alone.Primary outcomes required were change in depressive symptoms and number of dropouts from study or treatment (as a measure of acceptability). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS We extracted data, assessed risk of bias in duplicate, and resolved disagreements through discussion or consultation with a third person. We conducted random-effects meta-analyses when appropriate. We summarised continuous outcomes using mean differences (MDs) or standardised mean differences (SMDs), and dichotomous outcomes using risk ratios (RRs). MAIN RESULTS We included six trials (n = 698; most participants were women approximately 40 years of age). All studies evaluated psychotherapy plus usual care (with antidepressants) versus usual care (with antidepressants). Three studies addressed the addition of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) to usual care (n = 522), and one each evaluated intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy (ISTDP) (n = 60), interpersonal therapy (IPT) (n = 34), or group dialectical behavioural therapy (DBT) (n = 19) as the intervention. Most studies were small (except one trial of CBT was large), and all studies were at high risk of detection bias for the main outcome of self-reported depressive symptoms.A random-effects meta-analysis of five trials (n = 575) showed that psychotherapy given in addition to usual care (vs usual care alone) produced improvement in self-reported depressive symptoms (MD -4.07 points, 95% confidence interval (CI) -7.07 to -1.07 on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scale) over the short term (up to six months). Effects were similar when data from all six studies were combined for self-reported depressive symptoms (SMD -0.40, 95% CI -0.65 to -0.14; n = 635). The quality of this evidence was moderate. Similar moderate-quality evidence of benefit was seen on the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 Scale (PHQ-9) from two studies (MD -4.66, 95% CI 8.72 to -0.59; n = 482) and on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) from four studies (MD -3.28, 95% CI -5.71 to -0.85; n = 193).High-quality evidence shows no differential dropout (a measure of acceptability) between intervention and comparator groups over the short term (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.24; six studies; n = 698).Moderate-quality evidence for remission from six studies (RR 1.92, 95% CI 1.46 to 2.52; n = 635) and low-quality evidence for response from four studies (RR 1.80, 95% CI 1.2 to 2.7; n = 556) indicate that psychotherapy was beneficial as an adjunct to usual care over the short term.With the addition of CBT, low-quality evidence suggests lower depression scores on the BDI scale over the medium term (12 months) (RR -3.40, 95% CI -7.21 to 0.40; two studies; n = 475) and over the long term (46 months) (RR -1.90, 95% CI -3.22 to -0.58; one study; n = 248). Moderate-quality evidence for adjunctive CBT suggests no difference in acceptability (dropout) over the medium term (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.47; two studies; n = 549) and lower dropout over long term (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.97; one study; n = 248).Two studies reported serious adverse events (one suicide, two hospitalisations, and two exacerbations of depression) in 4.2% of the total sample, which occurred only in the usual care group (no events in the intervention group).An economic analysis (conducted as part of an included study) from the UK healthcare perspective (National Health Service (NHS)) revealed that adjunctive CBT was cost-effective over nearly four years. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Moderate-quality evidence shows that psychotherapy added to usual care (with antidepressants) is beneficial for depressive symptoms and for response and remission rates over the short term for patients with TRD. Medium- and long-term effects seem similarly beneficial, although most evidence was derived from a single large trial. Psychotherapy added to usual care seems as acceptable as usual care alone.Further evidence is needed on the effectiveness of different types of psychotherapies for patients with TRD. No evidence currently shows whether switching to a psychotherapy is more beneficial for this patient group than continuing an antidepressant medication regimen. Addressing this evidence gap is an important goal for researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharea Ijaz
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of BristolNIHR CLAHRC West at University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation TrustLewins Mead, Whitefriars BuildingBristolUKBS1 2NT
| | - Philippa Davies
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
| | - Catherine J Williams
- University of BristolSchool of Social and Community Medicine39 Whatley RoadBristolUKBS8 2PS
| | - David Kessler
- University of BristolSchool of Social and Community Medicine39 Whatley RoadBristolUKBS8 2PS
| | - Glyn Lewis
- UCLUCL Division of Psychiatry67‐73 Riding House StLondonUKW1W 7EJ
| | - Nicola Wiles
- University of BristolPopulation Health Sciences, Bristol Medical SchoolCanynge HallBristolUKBS8 2PS
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Abstract
Guidelines are readily available for the treatment of depression, and more recent ones are explicitly evidence-based. Their core messages vary little but they tend to minimise uncertainties and gloss over difficult areas. This article examines three areas of uncertainty: the thresholds of severity and, for milder depression, the duration of illness for which antidepressants are more effective than placebo; the next step in drug treatment when a patient has failed to respond adequately to a first antidepressant; and how long continuing on antidepressants should be recommended in relation to individual patients' needs. It is concluded that the uncertainties in relation to treating individual patients are a combination of lack of evidence and individual patient factors but there is also an intrinsic uncertainty that will continue to require good clinical judgement.
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Abstract
SummarySequenced (stepped) treatment approaches are widely endorsed in the management of depression. Combining antidepressants is a recognised step for those failing to respond to monotherapy. Despite the limited evidence base, this strategy is widely used by clinicians in practice. Not every combination used clinically has a sound neuropharmacological rationale and the use of such combinations may increase the side-effect burden without any additional advantage to the patient. Efficacy of various antidepressant combinations along with the data on side-effect profile and toxicity of such combined treatments are reviewed here. The different combinations are considered by each class of antidepressant available in the UK.
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Abstract
New data have emerged over the past 10 years regarding the efficacy and mechanisms of action of lithium. This article briefly summarises the evidence for the use of lithium to treat affective disorders and psychosis, reviews its putative anti-suicidal effect, highlights new research on its mechanism of action and provides an update on some important side-effects and consequences of its use.
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Cowen PJ. New drugs, old problems: Revisiting… Pharmacological management of treatment-resistant depression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1192/apt.11.1.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Effective pharmacological management of depression resistant to antidepressant medication is best carried out in the context of a supportive and collaborative relationship, following a mutually agreed care plan. Simpler pharmacological approaches such as switching antidepressant classes are tried first, then augmentation is used if needed. New classes of antidepressants have made antidepressant combination a popular augmentation strategy, but lithium addition has most supporting evidence. The use of atypical antipsychotics as augmenting agents is increasing. For patients unresponsive to these strategies, monoamine oxidase inhibitors and electroconvulsive therapy remain important. Large randomised pragmatic trials are needed to help clinicians and patients make better treatment choices.
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Eliwa H, Belzung C, Surget A. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Is it the alpha and omega of antidepressant action? Biochem Pharmacol 2017; 141:86-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Vermeiden M, Kamperman AM, Hoogendijk WJG, van den Broek WW, Birkenhäger TK. A randomized clinical trial comparing two two-phase treatment strategies for in-patients with severe depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2017; 136:118-128. [PMID: 28478653 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the efficacy of two antidepressant treatment strategies in severely depressed in-patients, that is, imipramine vs. venlafaxine, both with subsequent lithium addition in non-responders. METHOD In-patients (n = 88) with major depressive disorder were randomized to 7-week treatment with imipramine or venlafaxine (phase I). All non-responders (n = 44) received 4-week plasma level-targeted dose lithium addition (phase II). Efficacy was evaluated after 11 weeks of treatment. RESULTS Analyzing phases I and II combined, non-inferiority was established and the difference in the proportion of responders (HAM-D score reduction ≥50%) by the end of phase II demonstrated the venlafaxine-lithium treatment strategy to be significantly superior to the imipramine-lithium treatment strategy (77% vs. 52%) (χ2 (1) = 6.03; P = 0.01). Regarding remission (HAM-D score ≤ 7), 15 of 44 (34%) patients in the imipramine-lithium treatment group were remitters compared to 22 of 44 (50%) patients in the venlafaxine-lithium treatment group, a non-significant difference. Patients in the venlafaxine-lithium treatment group had a non-significant larger mean HAM-D score reduction compared with patients in the imipramine-lithium treatment group (16.1 vs. 13.5 points, respectively; Cohen's d = 0.30). CONCLUSION The venlafaxine-lithium treatment strategy can be considered a valuable alternative for the imipramine-lithium treatment strategy in the treatment of severely depressed in-patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Vermeiden
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A M Kamperman
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Epidemiological and Social Psychiatric Research Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W J G Hoogendijk
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - W W van den Broek
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - T K Birkenhäger
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Papadimitropoulou K, Vossen C, Karabis A, Donatti C, Kubitz N. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of pharmacological and somatic interventions in adult patients with treatment-resistant depression: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Curr Med Res Opin 2017; 33:701-711. [PMID: 28035869 DOI: 10.1080/03007995.2016.1277201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Major depressive disorder (MDD) affects about 10-15% of the general population in a lifetime. A considerable number of patients fail to achieve full symptom remission despite adequate treatment and are considered treatment resistant (TRD). The current study compared the relative efficacy and tolerability of pharmacological and somatic TRD interventions by means of a Bayesian network meta-analysis. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS An electronic literature search of MEDLINE, MEDLINE In-Process, EMBASE, PsycInfo, EconLit and Cochrane Library databases for trials published between September 2003 and September 2014 was conducted. Key outcomes extracted were disease severity change from baseline, response and remission rates at various timepoints and discontinuation due to adverse events. RESULTS Of the 3876 abstracts identified, 31 publications/randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were included in the analysis; 19 RCTs investigating 13 pharmacological interventions and 12 RCTs investigating electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). The evidence synthesis investigating efficacy outcomes of TRD treatments demonstrated superior efficacy for ketamine compared to pharmacological and somatic interventions at 2 weeks after treatment initiation. At 4, 6 and 8 weeks, quetiapine augmentation (800 mg/day) and risperidone augmentation were found to be the first and second best treatments, respectively. Networks were small for response rate and remission rate outcomes at most timepoints. The most tolerable treatment was lamotrigine augmentation showing a comparable profile to placebo/sham. CONCLUSIONS This analysis revealed scarcity of long-term data on sustained remission that would allow a comparative long-term efficacy assessment. Key limitations of the analysis can be considered the search timeframe and the use of mapping formula for the depression scores.
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Lithium monitoring patterns in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Can shared care agreements play a role in improving monitoring quality? A systematic review. Ir J Psychol Med 2017; 34:127-140. [PMID: 30115218 DOI: 10.1017/ipm.2017.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The appropriate monitoring of patients on lithium therapy has been the subject of extensive research in the form of clinical audits and surveys culminating in the development of specific guidelines to help clinicians provide optimal care for patients on lithium. The concept of 'shared care' has also gained attention in the literature with various types of shared care interventions being introduced as potential ways of improving communication between primary and secondary care. OBJECTIVES This article aims to (1) review the literature evaluating lithium monitoring practices in the United Kingdom and Ireland in the last 25 years and (2) determine whether locally agreed shared care agreements have the potential to improve monitoring quality. METHODS A literature search was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL and PsychInfo. A total of 12 studies were selected for review including 11 audits/prospective chart reviews and one qualitative study using semi-structured interviews. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the quality of lithium monitoring seems to be improving throughout the years. However, none of the studies reviewed revealed complete adherence to monitoring guidelines. This may be due to a lack of effective communication between primary and secondary care. Several shared care interventions have been described in the literature but there is a paucity of studies concerned with the effects of local shared care arrangements designed for the specific purpose of lithium monitoring. Nonetheless, the extant data suggests that such agreements may help improve monitoring standards by allowing the responsibilities for managing the prescribing and monitoring of lithium to be more clearly defined and shared between primary and secondary care.
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Fornaro M, Stubbs B, De Berardis D, Iasevoli F, Solmi M, Veronese N, Carano A, Perna G, De Bartolomeis A. Does the " Silver Bullet" Lose its Shine Over the Time? Assessment of Loss of Lithium Response in a Preliminary Sample of Bipolar Disorder Outpatients. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2016; 12:142-157. [PMID: 28217142 PMCID: PMC5278557 DOI: 10.2174/1745017901612010142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Background: Though often perceived as a “silver bullet” treatment for bipolar disorder (BD), lithium has seldom reported to lose its efficacy over the time. Objective: The aim of the present study was to assess cases of refractoriness toward restarted lithium in BD patients who failed to preserve maintenance. Method: Treatment trajectories associated with re-instituted lithium following loss of achieved lithium-based maintenance in BD were retrospectively reviewed for 37 BD-I patients (median age 52 years; F:M=17:20 or 46% of the total) over an 8.1-month period on average. Results: In our sample only 4 cases (roughly 11% of the total, of whom F:M=2:2) developed refractoriness towards lithium after its discontinuation. Thirty-three controls (F:M=15:18) maintained lithium response at the time of re-institution. No statistically significant difference between cases and controls was observed with respect to a number of demographic and clinical features but for time spent before first trial ever with lithium in life (8.5 vs. 3 years; U=24.5, Z=-2.048, p=.041) and length of lithium discontinuation until new therapeutic attempt (5.5 vs. 2 years; U=8, Z=-2.927, p=.003) between cases vs. controls respectively. Tapering off of lithium was significantly faster among cases vs. controls (1 vs. 7 days; U=22, Z=-2.187), though both subgroups had worrisome high rates of poor adherence overall. Conclusion: Although intrinsic limitations of the present preliminary assessment hamper the validity and generalizability of overall results, stating the clinical relevance of the topic further prospective research is warranted. The eventual occurrence of lithium refractoriness may indeed be associated with peculiar course trajectories and therapeutic outcomes ultimately urging the prescribing clinicians to put efforts in preserving maintenance of BD in the absence of any conclusive research insight on the matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fornaro
- New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYPSI); Columbia University, NYC, NY, USA
| | - B Stubbs
- Physiotherapy Department, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London SE5 8AZ, UK; Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - D De Berardis
- National Health Service, Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, "G. Mazzini" Hospital, ASL 4 Teramo, Italy
| | - F Iasevoli
- Outpatient Unit on Treatment Resistant Psychosis, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - M Solmi
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; I.R.E.M. (Institute for clinical Research and Education in Medicine), Padova, Italy
| | - N Veronese
- I.R.E.M. (Institute for clinical Research and Education in Medicine), Padova, Italy; Geriatrics Section, Department of Medicine (DIMED), University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - A Carano
- Hospital "C. G. Mazzoni", Ascoli Piceno, Italy
| | - G Perna
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hermanas Hospitalarias, FoRiPsi, Villa San Benedetto Menni, Albese con Cassano, 22032 Como, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Leonard Miller School of Medicine, Miami University, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - A De Bartolomeis
- Outpatient Unit on Treatment Resistant Psychosis, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Pharmacogenetics and Imaging-Pharmacogenetics of Antidepressant Response: Towards Translational Strategies. CNS Drugs 2016; 30:1169-1189. [PMID: 27752945 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-016-0385-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Genetic variation underlies both the response to antidepressant treatment and the occurrence of side effects. Over the past two decades, a number of pharmacogenetic variants, among these the SCL6A4, BDNF, FKBP5, GNB3, GRIK4, and ABCB1 genes, have come to the forefront in this regard. However, small effects sizes, mixed results in independent samples, and conflicting meta-analyses results led to inherent difficulties in the field of pharmacogenetics translating these findings into clinical practice. Nearly all antidepressant pharmacogenetic variants have potentially pleiotropic effects in which they are associated with major depressive disorder, intermediate phenotypes involved in emotional processes, and brain areas affected by antidepressant treatment. The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of the advances made in the field of pharmacogenetics of antidepressant efficacy and side effects, imaging findings of antidepressant response, and the latest results in the expanding field of imaging-pharmacogenetics studies. We suggest there is mounting evidence that genetic factors exert their impact on treatment response by influencing brain structural and functional changes during antidepressant treatment, and combining neuroimaging and genetic methods may be a more powerful way to detect biological mechanisms of response than either method alone. The most promising imaging-pharmacogenetics findings exist for the SCL6A4 gene, with converging associations with antidepressant response, frontolimbic predictors of affective symptoms, and normalization of frontolimbic activity following antidepressant treatment. More research is required before imaging-pharmacogenetics informed personalized medicine can be applied to antidepressant treatment; nevertheless, inroads have been made towards assessing genetic and neuroanatomical liability and potential clinical application.
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Sethy RR, Sinha VK. Effect of lithium on thyroid function in adolescents with mood disorder. Asian J Psychiatr 2016; 24:41-45. [PMID: 27931904 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of the study was to determine thyroid gland volume and the frequency of thyroid dysfunction by using ultrasonography and laboratory parameters (TSH, T3, and T4) in long term lithium treated adolescent patients with mood disorder. METHODOLOGY In a cross-sectional study, we performed ultrasonography and thyroid function test in 30 adolescent patients on long-term lithium treatment for mood disorder. Patients with adequate serum lithium levels for one year or more were taken for the study. Ultrasonography examinations of thyroid gland and thyroid function test were performed in these patients. Patients who were on other mood stabilizers were taken up as controls. RESULT The thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and ultrasonographically measured thyroid volume were significantly higher in patients receiving lithium in comparison to patients with other mood stabilizers. A significant positive correlation was found between total thyroid volume and TSH levels. CONCLUSION Adolescent mood disorder patients on long term lithium therapy have increased thyroid volume and isolated increases in serum TSH levels compared to those on other mood stabilizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rati Ranjan Sethy
- Department of Psychiatry, IMS & SUM Hospital, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
| | - Vinod Kumar Sinha
- Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Central institute of psychiatry, Kanke, Ranchi, India
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Ghabrash MF, Comai S, Tabaka J, Saint-Laurent M, Booij L, Gobbi G. Valproate augmentation in a subgroup of patients with treatment-resistant unipolar depression. World J Biol Psychiatry 2016; 17:165-70. [PMID: 26444701 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2015.1073856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES About 50% of patients with unipolar depression suffer from treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Animal studies have suggested potential antidepressant properties of valproate (VPA) possibly due to its implication in epigenetic programming. METHODS Fourteen TRD patients (seven males and seven females; age 19-59) received VPA (375-1000 mg/day) in addition to their treatment regimen after previously failing to respond to two or more antidepressant trials and/or different combinations. Clinical response to VPA was investigated prior the treatment (T-0) and after 1 (T-1), 4 (T-4) and 7 (T-7) months of therapy using the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and the Clinical Global Impression (CGI). RESULTS Compared to T-0, VPA significantly decreased MADRS score at T-1 (P < 0.001), T-4 (P < 0.001) and T-7 (P < 0.001) (partial η(2)=0.86). Importantly, MADRS score at T-7 (13.6 ± 1.6, mean ± SEM) was closer to the reported value of remission (MADRS <10), and none of the patients relapsed during the observational period. Compared to T-0, VPA also decreased CGI-Severity of illness score at T-1 (p = 0.03), T-4 (p < 0.001) and T-7 (p < 0.001) (partial η(2) = 0.74). CONCLUSIONS Antidepressant augmentation with VPA provided substantial clinical improvement and maintenance over a relatively long-term period in a subgroup of patients with severe TRD. VPA thus deserves further exploration in large double-blind clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maykel F Ghabrash
- a Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada.,b Mood Disorder Clinic, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada
| | - Stefano Comai
- a Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada
| | - John Tabaka
- a Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada.,b Mood Disorder Clinic, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada
| | - Marie Saint-Laurent
- b Mood Disorder Clinic, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada
| | - Linda Booij
- c Sainte-Justine Hospital Research Center & University of Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada; Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, QC., Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Montréal, and Department of Psychiatry, McGill University , Montréal , QC , Canada
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- a Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada.,b Mood Disorder Clinic, Department of Psychiatry , McGill University Health Center, McGill University , Montreal , QC , Canada
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27
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de Sousa RT, Zanetti MV, Brunoni AR, Machado-Vieira R. Challenging Treatment-Resistant Major Depressive Disorder: A Roadmap for Improved Therapeutics. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 13:616-35. [PMID: 26467411 PMCID: PMC4761633 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666150630173522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Major
depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with a significant burden and costs to
the society. As remission of depressive symptoms is achieved in only one-third
of the MDD patients after the first antidepressant trial, unsuccessful
treatments contribute largely to the observed suffering and social costs of MDD.
The present article provides a summary of the therapeutic strategies that have
been tested for treatment-resistant depression (TRD). A computerized search on
MedLine/PubMed database from 1975 to September 2014 was performed, using the
keywords “treatment-resistant depression”, “major depressive disorder”,
“adjunctive”, “refractory” and “augmentation”. From the 581 articles retrieved,
two authors selected 79 papers. A manual searching further considered relevant
articles of the reference lists. The evidence found supports adding or switching
to another antidepressant from a different class is an effective strategy in
more severe MDD after failure to an initial antidepressant trial. Also, in
subjects resistant to two or more classes of antidepressants, some augmentation
strategies and antidepressant combinations should be considered, although the
overall response and remission rates are relatively low, except for fast acting
glutamatergic modulators. The wide range of available treatments for TRD
reflects the complexity of MDD, which does not underlie diverse key features of
the disorder. Larger and well-designed studies applying dimensional approaches
to measure efficacy and effectiveness are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Rodrigo Machado-Vieira
- Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, Address: Instituto de Psiquiatria do HC-FMUSP, 3o andar, LIM-27, Rua Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785, Postal code 05403- 010, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Kawaura K, Ogata Y, Honda S, Soeda F, Shirasaki T, Takahama K. Tipepidine, a non-narcotic antitussive, exerts an antidepressant-like effect in the forced swimming test in adrenocorticotropic hormone-treated rats. Behav Brain Res 2016; 302:269-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Revised: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Al Jurdi RK, Swann A, Mathew SJ. Psychopharmacological Agents and Suicide Risk Reduction: Ketamine and Other Approaches. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2015; 17:81. [PMID: 26307033 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-015-0614-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Suicide is a major global public health problem and the leading cause of injury mortality in the USA. Suicide is a complex phenomenon involving several systems and neurobiological pathways, with interacting genetic and environmental mechanisms. The literature on the neurobiology and pharmacotherapy of suicide has been limited. To date, no medications have proven efficacious for treating acute suicidal crises. There is an emerging literature supporting a rapid anti-suicidal effect of ketamine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist, among depressed patients with suicidal ideation. Potential ketamine's anti-suicidal effect mechanisms are linked to interruption of the kynurenine pathway and modulating pro-inflammatory cytokines exacerbation. However, available data are not sufficient for its routine integration in clinical practice, and larger and replicated randomized control studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayan K Al Jurdi
- Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center, 2002 Holcombe Blvd MHCL 116, Houston, TX, 77030, USA,
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30
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Allouche G. [Sequential prescriptions: Arguments for a change of therapeutic patterns in treatment resistant depressions]. Encephale 2015; 42:32-8. [PMID: 26358484 DOI: 10.1016/j.encep.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Among the therapeutic strategies in treatment of resistant depression, the use of sequential prescriptions is discussed here. A number of observations, initially quite isolated and few controlled studies, some large-scale, have been reported, which showed a definite therapeutic effect of certain requirements in sequential treatment of depression. The Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression Study (STAR*D) is up to now the largest clinical trial exploring treatment strategies in non psychotic resistant depression in real-life conditions with an algorithm of sequential decision. The main conclusions of this study are the following: after two unsuccessful attempts, the chance of remission decreases considerably. A 12-months follow-up showed that the higher the use of the processing steps were high, the more common the relapses were during this period. The pharmacological differences between psychotropic did not cause clinically significant difference. The positive effect of lithium in combination with antidepressants has been known since the work of De Montigny. Antidepressants allow readjustment of physiological sequence involving different monoaminergic systems together. Studies with tricyclic antidepressant-thyroid hormone T3: in depression, decreased norepinephrine at the synaptic receptors believed to cause hypersensitivity of these receptors. Thyroid hormones modulate the activity of adrenergic receptors. There would be a balance of activity between alpha and beta-adrenergic receptors, depending on the bioavailability of thyroid hormones. ECT may in some cases promote pharmacological response in case of previous resistance, or be effective in preventing relapse. Cognitive therapy and antidepressant medications likely have an effect on different types of depression. We can consider the interest of cognitive therapy in a sequential pattern after effective treatment with an antidepressant effect for treatment of residual symptoms, preventing relapses and recurrences, in antidepressant maintenance. These data support the interest of therapeutic strategies based on evolutionary criteria. Sequential models inspired by statistical methods may incorporate the effects of a future treatment by measuring the current one.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Allouche
- 24, boulevard de Strasbourg, 93600 Aulnay-sous-Bois, France.
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31
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Culpepper L, Muskin PR, Stahl SM. Major Depressive Disorder: Understanding the Significance of Residual Symptoms and Balancing Efficacy with Tolerability. Am J Med 2015; 128:S1-S15. [PMID: 26337210 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Major depressive disorder is a complex and frequent psychiatric condition that poses significant challenges to both the patients who experience it and the physicians who treat them. The goal of therapy is for patients to achieve remission, which requires identifying and measuring symptoms at the outset and throughout treatment to document both response and resistance to treatment. A number of validated instruments are available both for diagnosis of and response to treatment. Many factors affect a patient's ability to achieve remission, but although many patients do achieve remission, a significant number continue to have residual symptoms that cause functional impairment. METHODS Review of the literature for treatment of major depression, including mechanisms of action, individualized treatment optimization, residual symptom reduction, and minimization of side effects. RESULTS For sustained remission, all symptoms must be treated until they are undetectable. Patients who do not achieve remission after adequate treatment trials should be evaluated for adherence to treatment, as well as comorbid psychiatric and medical disorders. In these cases, consideration should be given to changing therapy by switching, combining, or augmenting initial therapy, as well as referring some patients to a psychiatrist for treatment with specialized modalities. Linking symptoms with malfunctioning brain circuits and neurotransmitters provides a targeted approach for achieving sustained remission. Neurobiology also provides a rational basis for combination therapy in patients with treatment-resistant depression, because it can aid selection of different drugs with different mechanisms of action or of multifunctional/multimodal antidepressant drugs that target more than 1 molecular mechanism. DISCUSSION Recent advances and better understanding of neurobiology provide a rational basis for individualizing treatment of patients with major depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry Culpepper
- Department of Family Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, Mass.
| | - Philip R Muskin
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Stephen M Stahl
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, San Diego; Neuroscience Education Institute, Carlsbad, Calif; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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32
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Epstein I, Szpindel I, Katzman MA. Pharmacological approaches to manage persistent symptoms of major depressive disorder: rationale and therapeutic strategies. Psychiatry Res 2014; 220 Suppl 1:S15-33. [PMID: 25539871 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-1781(14)70003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent chronic psychiatric illness associated with significant morbidity, mortality, loss of productivity, and diminished quality of life. Typically, only a minority of patients responds to treatment and meet criteria for remission as residual symptoms may persist, the result of an inadequate course of treatment and/or the presence of persistent side effects. The foremost goal of treatment should be to restore patients to full functioning and eliminate or relieve all MDD symptoms, while being virtually free of troublesome side effects. The current available pharmacological options to manage persistent depressive symptoms include augmentation or adjunctive combination strategies, both of which target selected psychobiological systems and specific mood and somatic symptoms experienced by the patient. As well, non-pharmacological interventions including psychotherapies may be used in either first-line or adjunctive approaches. However, the evidence to date with respect to available adjunct therapies is limited by few studies and those published have utilized only a small number of subjects and lack enough data to allow for a consensus of expert opinion. This underlines the need for further longer term, large population-based studies and those that include comorbid populations, all of which are seen in real world community psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irvin Epstein
- START Clinic for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Isaac Szpindel
- START Clinic for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Martin A Katzman
- START Clinic for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada; Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada; Adler Graduate Professional School, Toronto, ON, Canada
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33
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Block SG, Nemeroff CB. Emerging antidepressants to treat major depressive disorder. Asian J Psychiatr 2014; 12:7-16. [PMID: 25277330 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Depression is a common disorder with an annual risk of a depressive episode in the United States of 6.6%. Only 30-40% of patients remit with antidepressant monotherapy, leaving 60-70% of patients who do not optimally respond to therapy. Unremitted depressive patients are at increased risk for suicide. Considering the prevalence of treatment resistant depression and its consequences, treatment optimization is imperative. This review summarizes the latest treatment modalities for major depressive disorder including pharmacotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and psychotherapy. Through advancements in research to better understand the pathophysiology of depression, advances in treatment will be realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha G Block
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Jackson Memorial Hospital, University of Miami Hospital, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, 1695 N.W. 9th Avenue, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | - Charles B Nemeroff
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center on Aging, Jackson Memorial Hospital, University of Miami Hospital, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, 1120 Northwest 14 Street, Suite 1455, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Abstract
Lithium carbonate is a widely administered antimanic drug used for the treatment of bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and depression. Despite the established clinical efficacy of lithium, its usage must be approached with caution due to its narrow therapeutic index. Lithium poisoning results in multisystem toxicity, and characteristic clinical manifestations are directly correlated to serum lithium concentration. We describe a rather rare but fatal side effect of lithium: acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in a 46-year-old female on lithium for the treatment of bipolar disease. She was referred for generalized weakness, found in hemodynamic compromise, and had laboratory data significant for a lithium level of 3.3 mmole/L, needing emergent hemodialysis. Subsequently, she developed hypoxic respiratory failure requiring intubation. Her chest x-rays showed new bilateral pulmonary edema, the computed tomography scan showed extensive alveolar consolidation and V/Q scan of low probability for pulmonary embolism. She underwent 3 dialysis sessions and supportive care and was able to be extubated in 5 days. To our knowledge, 4 cases of ARDS after the onset of lithium toxicity have been documented. All patients presented with altered mental status at serum lithium levels ranging from 3.8 to 4.9 mmole/L and cardiogenic etiologies in addition to other likely causes of ARDS were ruled out in each case. The patients were treated with saline hydration (50%) or hemodialysis (50%), indicating that hemodialysis may be a permissive factor in lithium-associated ARDS development rather than a required component. Taken together, we believe that lithium is a likely culprit in the initiation of ARDS and propose the addition of ARDS to the family of clinical manifestations of severe lithium toxicity.
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35
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Activation of Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Mediates the Olfactory Deficit-Induced Hippocampal Impairments. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 52:1601-1617. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8953-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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36
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Faster, better, stronger: towards new antidepressant therapeutic strategies. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 753:32-50. [PMID: 25092200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Major depression is a highly prevalent disorder and is predicted to be the second leading cause of disease burden by 2020. Although many antidepressant drugs are currently available, they are far from optimal. Approximately 50% of patients do not respond to initial first line antidepressant treatment, while approximately one third fail to achieve remission following several pharmacological interventions. Furthermore, several weeks or months of treatment are often required before clinical improvement, if any, is reported. Moreover, most of the commonly used antidepressants have been primarily designed to increase synaptic availability of serotonin and/or noradrenaline and although they are of therapeutic benefit to many patients, it is clear that other therapeutic targets are required if we are going to improve the response and remission rates. It is clear that more effective, rapid-acting antidepressants with novel mechanisms of action are required. The purpose of this review is to outline the current strategies that are being taken in both preclinical and clinical settings for identifying superior antidepressant drugs. The realisation that ketamine has rapid antidepressant-like effects in treatment resistant patients has reenergised the field. Further, developing an understanding of the mechanisms underlying the rapid antidepressant effects in treatment-resistant patients by drugs such as ketamine may uncover novel therapeutic targets that can be exploited to meet the Olympian challenge of developing faster, better and stronger antidepressant drugs.
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37
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Abstract
AbstractObjectives: Treatment resistant depression (TRD), commonly encountered in clinical practice, leads to socioeconomic disability and therapeutic pessimism. This paper reviews evidence for pharmacological approaches used in TRD.Method: Electronic literature searches were performed using Medline and Psychlit using broad search terms relating to TRD.Results: Agents that potentiate both serotonin and noradrenaline may allow more patients to achieve full remission. Attention must be paid to dose titration and length of treatment courses in TRD. Augmentation with lithium and switching within antidepressant class or between classes can often improve symptoms but efficacy of other augmentation approaches remains uncertain. Antidepressant combinations and addition of atypical antipsychotics can be useful but combinations of predominantly serotonergic antidepressants should be avoided. Electroconvulsive therapy retains an important role in TRD but pharmacological treatments need to be continued concomitantly.Conclusions: Good improvement is seen in TRD after vigorous antidepressant treatment but most patients continue to have lower grade symptomatology.
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38
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39
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Młyniec K, Davies CL, de Agüero Sánchez IG, Pytka K, Budziszewska B, Nowak G. Essential elements in depression and anxiety. Part I. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 66:534-44. [PMID: 24948052 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Essential elements are very important for the proper functioning of the human body. They are required for fundamental life processes such as cell division and differentiation and protein synthesis. Thus a deficiency of these essential elements is associated with an enormous health risk that can ultimately lead to death. In recent years, studies have provided valuable information on the involvement of essential elements in psychiatric disorders, in particular depression and anxiety. There is strong evidence indicating that deficiency of essential elements can lead to the development of depressive and/or anxiogenic behaviour and supplementation can enhance therapeutic effect of antidepressants and anxiolytics. This review presents the most important results from preclinical and clinical studies showing involvement of essential elements such as zinc, magnesium, lithium, iron, calcium and chromium in depression and anxiety. From these studies it is evident that different types of depression and anxiety respond to treatment at different receptors indicating that the underlying mechanisms are slightly different. Furthermore, administration of low dose antidepressants supplemented with an element is effective and can reduce unwanted side effects in different types of depression/anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Młyniec
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Kraków, Poland; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Claire Linzi Davies
- Neurobiology Division, The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | | | - Karolina Pytka
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
| | - Bogusława Budziszewska
- Department of Biochemical Toxicology, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Kraków, Poland; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Gabriel Nowak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland; Department of Pharmacobiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract
Psychotic depression is associated with significant morbidity and mortality but is underdiagnosed and undertreated. In recent years, there have been several studies that have increased our knowledge regarding the optimal treatment of patients with psychotic depression. The combination of an antidepressant and antipsychotic is significantly more effective than either antidepressant monotherapy or antipsychotic monotherapy for the acute treatment of psychotic depression. Most treatment guidelines recommend either the combination of an antidepressant with an antipsychotic or ECT for the treatment of an acute episode of unipolar psychotic depression. The optimal maintenance treatment after a person responds to either the antidepressant/antipsychotic combination or the ECT is unclear particularly as it pertains to length of time the patient needs to take the antipsychotic medication. Little is known regarding the optimal treatment of a patient with bipolar disorder who has an episode of psychotic depression or the clinical characteristics of responders to medication treatments vs ECT treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Rothschild
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed; 361 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, US; tel: (508) 856-1027, fax: (508) 856-4854, e-mail:
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41
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Wiles N, Williams CJ, Kessler D, Lewis G. Psychological therapies for treatment-resistant depression in adults. Hippokratia 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd010558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Wiles
- University of Bristol; School of Social and Community Medicine; Oakfield House Oakfield Grove Bristol UK BS8 2BN
| | - Catherine J Williams
- University of Bristol; School of Social and Community Medicine; Oakfield House Oakfield Grove Bristol UK BS8 2BN
| | - David Kessler
- University of Bristol; School of Social and Community Medicine; Oakfield House Oakfield Grove Bristol UK BS8 2BN
| | - Glyn Lewis
- University of Bristol; School of Social and Community Medicine; Oakfield House Oakfield Grove Bristol UK BS8 2BN
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Evidence for the benefits of nonantipsychotic pharmacological augmentation in the treatment of depression. CNS Drugs 2013; 27 Suppl 1:S21-7. [PMID: 23712796 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-012-0030-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Failure to achieve an adequate response after initial antidepressant treatment in patients with depression is common and remains a clinical challenge. In recent years, some atypical antipsychotic agents have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in an augmentation strategy for major depressive disorder, and other agents are already in common use in clinical practice. We conducted a search of MEDLINE for relevant studies of augmentation strategies using randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses, and we summarize and discuss the various agents other than atypical antipsychotics. Lithium and thyroid hormone augmentation may improve the response of tricyclic antidepressants but not that of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The efficacy of augmentation with modafinil, buspirone, methylphenidate, folic acid, pindolol and lamotrigine is limited or equivocal. Most of the studies have not focused on treatment-resistant depression (TRD). More trials are needed to help develop evidence-based options for augmentation in TRD.
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44
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Iwai T, Ohnuki T, Sasaki-Hamada S, Saitoh A, Sugiyama A, Oka JI. Glucagon-like peptide-2 but not imipramine exhibits antidepressant-like effects in ACTH-treated mice. Behav Brain Res 2013; 243:153-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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45
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Geier M. Lithium as augmentation for major depressive disorder. Ment Health Clin 2012. [DOI: 10.9740/mhc.n110749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although lithium does not have an FDA approved indication for augmentation of an antidepressant in major depressive disorder, it has been prescribed for this purpose for decades. While a wide variety of medications have been used historically in this capacity, lithium is one of the few agents that has demonstrated efficacy in multiple randomized controlled trials. Although the ideal role for lithium augmentation has yet to be established, there is currently ample evidence to support the clinical practice of adding lithium to conventional antidepressants in pursuit of major depressive disorder remission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Geier
- 1 University of California San Francisco, Psychiatric Pharmacy Resident (PGY2)
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46
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Papakostas GI, Cassiello CF, Iovieno N. Folates and S-adenosylmethionine for major depressive disorder. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2012; 57:406-13. [PMID: 22762295 DOI: 10.1177/070674371205700703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Interest in nonpharmaceutical supplements for treating major depressive disorder (MDD) has increased significantly, both among patients and among clinicians during the past decades. Despite the large array of antidepressants (ADs) available, many patients continue to experience relatively modest response and remission rates, in addition to a burden of side effects that can hinder treatment compliance and acceptability. In this article, we review the literature on folates and S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), 2 natural compounds linked in the 1-carbon cycle metabolic pathway, for which substantial evidence supports their involvement in mood disorders. Background information, efficacy data, proposed mechanisms of action, and side effects are reviewed. Based on existing data, supplementation with SAMe, as well as with various formulations of folates, appears to be efficacious and well tolerated in reducing depressive symptoms. Compared with other forms of folates, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (L-methylfolate or 5-MTHF) may represent a preferable treatment option for MDD given its greater bioavailability in patients with a genetic polymorphism, and the lower risk of specific side effects associated with folic acid. Although further randomized controlled trials in this area appear warranted, SAMe and L-methylfolate may represent a useful addition to the AD armamentarium.
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Affiliation(s)
- George I Papakostas
- Harvard Medical School and Director of Center for Treatment-Resistant Depression, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Lithium toxicity and neurologic effects: probable neuroleptic malignant syndrome resulting from lithium toxicity. Case Rep Psychiatry 2012; 2012:271858. [PMID: 22953147 PMCID: PMC3420417 DOI: 10.1155/2012/271858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. We present the case of a patient who developed lithium toxicity with normal therapeutic levels, as a result of pharmacokinetic interaction with Valsartan, and probable Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome from the ensuing lithium toxicity. Case Presentation. A 59-year old black male with bipolar disorder maintained on lithium and fluphenazine therapy presented with a 2 week history of worsening confusion, tremor, and gait abnormality. He recently had his dose of Valsartan increased. At presentation, patient had signs of autonomic instability, he was confused, dehydrated, and had rigidity of upper extremities. Significant labs on admission were lithium level-1.2, elevated CK-6008, leukocytosis WBC-22, and renal impairment; Creatinine-4.1, BUN-35, HCO3-20.1, and blood glucose 145. CT/MRI brain showed old cerebral infarcts, and there was no evidence of an infective process. Lithium and fluphenazine were discontinued, his lithium levels gradually decreased, and he improved with supportive treatment including rehydration and correction of electrolyte imbalance. Conclusions. This case illustrates that lithium toxicity can occur within therapeutic levels, and the neurotoxic effect of lithium can include Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome. Clinicians should be aware of the risk associated with drug interactions with lithium.
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48
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Baghai TC, Blier P, Baldwin DS, Bauer M, Goodwin GM, Fountoulakis KN, Kasper S, Leonard BE, Malt UF, Stein DJ, Versiani M, Möller HJ. Executive summary of the report by the WPA section on pharmacopsychiatry on general and comparative efficacy and effectiveness of antidepressants in the acute treatment of depressive disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2012; 262:13-22. [PMID: 22083391 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-011-0274-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Current gold standard in the treatment of depression includes pharmacotherapeutic and psychotherapeutic strategies together with social support. Due to the actually discussed controversies concerning the differential efficacy of antidepressants, a contribution to a comprehensive clarification seems to be necessary to avert further deterioration and uncertainty from patients, relatives, and their treating psychiatrists and general practitioners. Both efficacy and clinical effectiveness of antidepressants in the treatment of depressive disorders can be confirmed. Clinically meaningful antidepressant treatment effects were confirmed in different types of studies. Methodological issues of randomized controlled studies, meta-analyses, and effectiveness studies will be discussed. Furthermore, actual data about the differential efficacy and effectiveness of antidepressants with distinct pharmacodynamic properties and about outcome differences in studies using antidepressants and/or psychotherapy are discussed. This is followed by a clinically oriented depiction-the differential clinical effectiveness of different pharmacodynamic modes of action of antidepressants in different subtypes of depressive disorders. It can be summarized that the spectrum of different antidepressant treatments has broadened during the last decades. The efficacy and clinical effectiveness of antidepressants is statistically significant and clinically relevant and proven repeatedly. For further optimizing antidepressant treatment plans, clearly structured treatment algorithms and the implementation of psychotherapy seem to be useful. A modern individualized antidepressant treatment in most cases is a well-tolerated and efficacious tool to minimize the negative impact of the otherwise devastating and life-threatening outcome of depressive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Baghai
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Nußbaumstraße 7, 80336, Munich, Germany.
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SSRIs and conditioned fear. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:1810-9. [PMID: 21925230 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2011] [Revised: 08/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Among drugs that act on serotonergic neurotransmission, selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are now the gold standard for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The precise mechanisms of the anxiolytic actions of SSRIs are unclear. We reviewed the literature related to the effects of SSRIs and the neurochemical changes of 5-HT in conditioned fear. Acute SSRIs and 5-HT(1A) receptor agonists reduced the acquisition and expression of contextual conditioned fear. Chronic SSRI administration enhanced anxiolytic-like effects. Microinjection studies revealed the amygdala as the target brain region of both classes of serotonergic drugs, and the hippocampus as the target of 5-HT(1A) receptor agonists. These findings highlight the contribution of post-synaptic 5-HT receptors, especially 5-HT(1A) receptors, to the anxiolytic-like effects of serotonergic drugs. These results support the new 5-HT hypothesis of fear/anxiety: the facilitation of 5-HT neurotransmission ameliorates fear/anxiety. Furthermore, these behavioral data provide a new explanation of neurochemical adaptations to contextual conditioned fear: increased 5-HT transmission seems to decrease, not increase, fear.
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General and comparative efficacy and effectiveness of antidepressants in the acute treatment of depressive disorders: a report by the WPA section of pharmacopsychiatry. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2011; 261 Suppl 3:207-45. [PMID: 22033583 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-011-0259-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Current gold standard approaches to the treatment of depression include pharmacotherapeutic and psychotherapeutic interventions with social support. Due to current controversies concerning the efficacy of antidepressants in randomized controlled trials, the generalizability of study findings to wider clinical practice and the increasing importance of socioeconomic considerations, it seems timely to address the uncertainty of concerned patients and relatives, and their treating psychiatrists and general practitioners. We therefore discuss both the efficacy and clinical effectiveness of antidepressants in the treatment of depressive disorders. We explain and clarify useful measures for assessing clinically meaningful antidepressant treatment effects and the types of studies that are useful for addressing uncertainties. This includes considerations of methodological issues in randomized controlled studies, meta-analyses, and effectiveness studies. Furthermore, we summarize the differential efficacy and effectiveness of antidepressants with distinct pharmacodynamic properties, and differences between studies using antidepressants and/or psychotherapy. We also address the differential effectiveness of antidepressant drugs with differing modes of action and in varying subtypes of depressive disorder. After highlighting the clinical usefulness of treatment algorithms and the divergent biological, psychological, and clinical efforts to predict the effectiveness of antidepressant treatments, we conclude that the spectrum of different antidepressant treatments has broadened over the last few decades. The efficacy and clinical effectiveness of antidepressants is statistically significant, clinically relevant, and proven repeatedly. Further optimization of treatment can be helped by clearly structured treatment algorithms and the implementation of psychotherapeutic interventions. Modern individualized antidepressant treatment is in most cases a well-tolerated and efficacious approach to minimize the negative impact of otherwise potentially devastating and life-threatening outcomes in depressive disorders.
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