Cardiopulmonary consequences of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts: role of increased pulmonary artery pressure

Hepato-Cardio-Renal Syndrome

Hepatorenal syndrome has conventionally been regarded as a multisystem syndrome in which pathophysiologic pathways that link cirrhosis with impairment in kidney function are followed by dysfunction of several organs such as the heart. The advances in cardiac studies have helped diagnose more subtle cardiac abnormalities that would have otherwise remained unnoticed in a significant subset of patients with advanced liver disease and cirrhosis. Accumulating data suggests that in many instances, the cardiac dysfunction precedes and predicts development of kidney disease in such patients. These observations point to the heart as a key player in hepatorenal syndrome and challenge the notion that the cardiac abnormalities are either the consequence of aberrancies in hepatorenal interactions or have only minor effects. As such, the disturbances traditionally bundled within hepatorenal syndrome may indeed represent a hepatic form of cardiorenal syndrome whereby the liver affects the kidney in part through cardiorenal pathways (that is, hepato-cardio-renal syndrome).

Covered TIPS Procedure-Related Major Complications: Incidence, Management and Outcome From a Single Center

Background and Objective

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) is a well-established procedure for treating complications of portal hypertension. Due to the complexity of anatomy and difficulty of the puncture technique, the procedure itself might brought potential complications, such as puncture failure, bleeding, infection, and, rarely, death. The aim of this study is to explore the incidence, management, and outcome of TIPS procedure-related major complications using covered stents.

Methods

Patients who underwent TIPS implantation from January 2015 to December 2020 were recruited retrospectively. Major complications after TIPS were screened and analyzed.

Results

Nine hundred and forty-eight patients underwent the TIPS procedure with 95.1% (n = 902) technical success in our department. TIPS procedure-related major complications occurred in 30 (3.2%) patients, including hemobilia (n = 13; 1.37%), hemoperitoneum (n = 7; 0.74%), accelerated liver failure (n = 6; 0.63%), and rapidly progressive organ failure (n = 4; 0.42%). Among them, 8 patients died because of hemobilia (n = 1), accelerated liver failure (n = 4), and rapidly progressive organ failure (n = 3).

Conclusion

The incidence of major complications related to TIPS procedure is relatively low, and some of them could recover through effective medical intervention. In our cohort, the overall incidence is about 3%, which causes 0.84% death. The most fatal complication is organ failure and hemobilia.

Cirrhotic Multiorgan Syndrome

Patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension are at an increased risk of the development of circulatory dysfunction that may potentially result in multiple organ failure. Apart from the liver, this may involve the heart, lungs, kidneys, the immune system, the adrenal glands, and other organ systems. As the disease progresses, the circulation becomes hyperdynamic, and signs of cardiac, pulmonary, and renal dysfunction are observed, in addition to reduced survival. Infections and an altered cardiac function known as cirrhotic cardiomyopathy may be precipitators for the development of other complications such as hepatorenal syndrome. In patients with chronic organ dysfunction, various precipitating events may induce an acute-on-chronic renal failure and acute-on-chronic liver failure that negatively affect the prognosis. Future research on the pathophysiologic mechanisms of the complications and the precipitating factors is essential to understand the basics of the treatment of these challenging conditions. The aim of the present review is to focus on the development and precipitating factors of various organ failures in patients with decompensated cirrhosis.

Acute pulmonary hypertension after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt: a potentially deadly but commonly forgotten complication

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a common cause of chronic liver disease and is the most common indication for liver transplantation in the United States. As increasing numbers of the population experience complications from chronic liver disease, management of these complications comes into focus. One such management technique is a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS). As the number of patients with HCV cirrhosis increases, the proportion of TIPS procedures performed will also increase. It is, therefore, paramount to understand the potential adverse effects of this increasingly used procedure. This case report focuses on a 52-year-old man with HCV cirrhosis who developed the complication of acute pulmonary hypertension after receiving a TIPS procedure. In this case report, we discuss this important but commonly missed complication of TIPS, including incidence, diagnosis, and treatment.

Glycogen phosphorylase BB levels are associated with haemodynamic parameters in cirrhotic patients undergoing transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt insertion

BACKGROUND

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPS) have become a widely accepted tool in the treatment of patients with symptomatic portal hypertension. The aim of our study was to assess glycogen phosphorylase BB (GPBB) concentration in relation to echocardiographic and haemodynamic parameters in patients before and after TIPS insertion.

METHODS

The study population consisted of 55 patients (38 men and 17 women, age 55.6±8.9 years, range 37-74 years) with liver cirrhosis treated with transjugular portosystemic shunting. GPBB, echocardiographic, and haemodynamic parameters were measured before TIPS insertion and 24 h after the procedure. GPBB concentrations were assessed using the Cardiac Array for Evidence Investigator protein biochip. Correlation between parameters was assessed using the Spearman's coefficient.

RESULTS

Serum post-procedural GPBB concentrations were increased in comparison with baseline (5.58 vs. 2.67 μg/L, P<0.001). GPBB concentration after TIPS significantly correlated with baseline systemic vascular resistence (r=0.330; P=0.017) and cardiac index (r=0.313; P=0.025).

CONCLUSION

GPBB concentration measurement may be a useful tool for monitoring myocardial ischemia during a TIPS procedure.

Echocardiography in liver transplant candidates

Involvement of the cardiovascular system in patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) is well recognized and may be seen in several scenarios in adult liver transplantation (LT) candidates. The hemodynamic effects of ESLD may result in apparent heart disease, or in some instances may mask cardiac disease. Alternatively, cardiac disease can occasionally be the underlying etiology of ESLD. LT imposes significant hemodynamic stresses, with cardiovascular complications accounting for considerable perioperative mortality and morbidity. Pre-operative assessment of the cardiac status of LT candidates is thus critically important for risk stratification and management. Cardiac imaging plays an integral role in the assessment of LT candidates. In this review, we discuss the role of cardiac imaging, including transthoracic echocardiography with Doppler and contrast enhancement, noninvasive functional assessment for routine pre-operative assessment of coronary artery disease, and transesophageal echocardiography in select cases to aid in intra-operative fluid management and monitoring in LT candidates.

Cardiac and renal effects of a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in cirrhosis

Refractory ascites and recurrent variceal bleeding are among the serious complications of portal hypertension and cirrhosis for which a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) can be used. Cirrhotic patients have varying degrees of haemodynamic derangement, mainly characterized by peripheral arterial vasodilatation, central underfilling and activation of several vasoactive systems. These changes affect the heart, the lungs and the kidneys in particular. The cardiac effects of TIPS are immediate and are related to the redirection of blood from the splanchnic circulation into the systemic circulation, resulting in worsening of the hyperdynamic circulation with increasing cardiac output and decreasing systemic vascular resistance; further, TIPS may unmask a latent diastolic dysfunction of the heart. However, the renal effects of TIPS seem to be beneficial as renal function tends to improve in patients with the hepatorenal syndrome. The clinical and haemodynamic effects of TIPS have been studied intensively and will be reviewed in the present paper. Considerable knowledge on the effects of TIPS on the pathophysiology of cirrhosis has been gained, but studies on the central haemodynamic effects are warranted to refine the already applied treatments and develop new treatment modalities.

Elevated cardiac markers are associated with higher mortality in patients after transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt insertion

BACKGROUND

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPSs) have become a widely accepted tool in the treatment of patients with symptomatic portal hypertension. The aim of our study was to assess the value of cardiac markers before and after TIPS insertion for the prediction of one-year mortality in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

The study population consisted of 55 patients (38 men and 17 women, aged 55.6 ± 8.9 y, range 37-74) with liver cirrhosis treated with transjugular portosystemic shunting. Biochemical markers were measured before and 24 h after TIPS. High-sensitivity cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT) was tested by high-sensitivity immunoassay for Elecsys analyser (Roche Diagnostics). Concentrations of creatine kinase MB isoenzyme, myoglobin (MYO), glycogenphosphorylase BB isoenzyme (GPBB) and heart type of fatty acid binding protein (FABP) were measured by the Evidence Investigator protein biochip system (Randox Laboratories).

RESULTS

In patients before TIPS insertion, hs-cTnT was increased above the cut-off (0.014 μg/L) in 39.2% of patients. Higher hs-cTnT and FABP concentrations were associated with poor survival in patients before TIPS (hs-cTnT: P = 0.018; FABP: P = 0.016). Twenty-four hours after the TIPS procedure, we found a significant elevation in serum GPBB in comparison with preprocedural values (P < 0.001). There was an association between postprocedural concentrations of cardiac markers (MYO, hs-cTnT, FABP) and overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Measurement of cardiac markers, mainly hs-cTnT and FABP, may be useful for mortality prediction in cirrhotic patients after TIPS. Cardiac markers are better mortality predictors than other risk factors such as age, gender or Child-Pugh score.

Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy

Increased cardiac output was first described in patients with cirrhosis more than fifty years ago. Later, various observations have indicated the presence of a latent cardiac dysfunction, which includes a combination of reduced cardiac contractility with systolic and diastolic dysfunction and electrophysiological abnormalities. This syndrome is termed cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. Results of experimental studies indicate the involvement of several mechanisms in the pathophysiology, such as reduced beta-adrenergic receptor signal transduction, altered transmembrane currents and electromechanical coupling, nitric oxide overproduction, and cannabinoid receptor activation. Systolic incompetence in patients can be revealed by pharmacological or physical strain and during stressful procedures, such as transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt insertion and liver transplantation. Systolic dysfunction has recently been implicated in development of renal failure in advanced disease. Diastolic dysfunction reflects delayed left ventricular filling and is partly attributed to ventricular hypertrophy, subendocardial oedema, and altered collagen structure. The QT interval is prolonged in about half of the cirrhotic patients and it may be normalised by beta-blockers. No specific therapy for cirrhotic cardiomyopathy can be recommended, but treatment should be supportive and directed against the cardiac dysfunction. Future research should better describe the prevalence, impact on morbidity and survival, and look for potential treatments.

The heart and the liver

Cardiac failure affects the liver and liver dysfunction affects the heart. Chronic and acute heart failure can lead to cardiac cirrhosis and cardiogenic ischemic hepatitis. These conditions may impair liver function and treatment should be directed towards the primary heart disease and seek to secure perfusion of vital organs. In patients with advanced cirrhosis, physical and/or pharmacological stress may reveal a reduced cardiac performance with systolic and diastolic dysfunction and electrophysical abnormalities, termed cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. Pathophysiological mechanisms include reduced beta-adrenergic receptor signal transduction and defective cardiac electromechanical coupling. However, the QT interval is prolonged in approximately half of patients with cirrhosis and it may be improved by beta-blockers. No specific therapy can be recommended but it should be supportive and directed against the heart failure. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt insertion and liver transplantation affect cardiac function in portal hypertensive patients and cause stress to the cirrhotic heart, with a risk of perioperative heart failure. The risk and prevalence of coronary artery disease are increasing in cirrhotic patients and since perioperative mortality is high, careful evaluation of such patients with dobutamine stress echocardiography, coronary angiography and myocardial perfusion imaging is required prior to liver transplantation. Future research should focus on beneficial effects of treatment on cardiac function and mortality.

Cardiovascular dysfunction in patients with end-stage liver disease

Most patients with advanced liver disease have a normal or even supernormal ejection fraction judged by echocardiography. Thus, physicians previously assumed that cardiac function was normal in most patients with liver disease. However, further investigation has uncovered multiple problems in cardiac performance that place patients at risk of heart failure. Patients with liver disease have defects in both systolic and diastolic function that only become obvious with physiologic stress such as liver transplantation. In addition there are additional defects in the electromechanical coupling of the heart that can have significant clinical consequences. These collective pathologic changes are termed "cirrhotic cardiomyopathy" and occur to some degree in all patients with liver disease. This review will explore the pathophysiology of cardiovascular changes in patients with end-stage liver disease.

Cardiac evaluation of liver transplant candidates

Physicians previously thought that heart disease was rare in patients with end stage liver disease. However, recent evidence shows that the prevalence of ischemic heart disease and cardiomyopathy is increased in transplant candidates compared to most other surgical candidates. Investigators estimate that up to 26% of all liver transplant candidates have at least one critical coronary artery stenosis and that at least half of these patients will die perioperatively of cardiac complications. Cardiomyopathy also occurs in greater frequency. While all patients with advanced cardiac disease have defects in cardiac performance, a larger than expected number of patients have classical findings of dilated, restrictive and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. This may explain why up to 56% of patients suffer from hypoxemia due to pulmonary edema following transplant surgery. There is considerable controversy on how to screen transplant candidates for the presence of heart disease. Questions focus upon, which patients should be screened and what tests should be used. This review examines screening strategies for transplant candidates and details the prognostic value of common tests used to identify ischemic heart disease. We also review the physiological consequences of cardiomyopathy in transplant candidates and explore the specific syndrome of “cirrhotic cardiomyopathy”.

TIPSS procedure in the treatment of a single patient after recent heart transplantation because of refractory ascites due to cardiac cirrhosis

We present the case of a female patient with arrhythmogenic dysplasia of the right ventricle who evolved to refractory heart failure, ascites, and peripheral edema. As a result, heart transplantation was performed. Subsequently, refractory ascites impaired the patient's respiratory function, resulting in prolonged mechanical ventilation. She was successfully treated with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPSS) placement, which allowed satisfactory weaning of ventilatory support.

Cardiac dysfunction in cirrhosis

Cirrhosis is known to be associated with numerous cardiovascular abnormalities. These include increased cardiac output and decreased arterial pressure and total peripheral resistance. Despite this increased baseline cardiac output, patients with cirrhosis show an attenuated systolic and diastolic function in the face of pharmacological, physiological and surgical stresses, as well as cardiac electrical abnormalities such as QT prolongation. These abnormalities have been termed cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. The pathogenic mechanisms that underlie this syndrome include impairment of the beta-adrenergic receptor signalling, cardiomyocyte plasma membrane function, intracellular calcium kinetics, and humoral factors such as endogenous cannabinoids, nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy is believed to contribute to the cardiac dysfunction that can be observed in patients with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent-shunt insertion and liver transplantation. Insufficient cardiac contractile function may also play a role in the pathogenesis of hepatorenal syndrome precipitated by spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. In this review, the clinical features, pathogenic mechanisms, clinical consequences and management options for cirrhotic cardiomyopathy are discussed.

Cardiopulmonary complications in chronic liver disease

Patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension exhibit characteristic cardiovascular and pulmonary hemodynamic changes. A vasodilatatory state and a hyperdynamic circulation affecting the cardiac and pulmonary functions dominate the circulation. The recently defined cirrhotic cardiomyopathy may affect systolic and diastolic functions, and imply electromechanical abnormalities. In addition, the baroreceptor function and regulation of the circulatory homoeostasis is impaired. Pulmonary dysfunction involves diffusing abnormalities with the development of the hepatopulmonary syndrome and portopulmonary hypertension in some patients. Recent research has focused on the assertion that the hemodynamic and neurohumoral dysregulation are of major importance for the development of the cardiovascular and pulmonary complications in cirrhosis. This aspect is important to take into account in the management of these patients.

Management of ascites in cirrhosis

Onset of ascites in cirrhosis of the liver is associated with worsened quality of life, increased risk of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and renal failure. Portal hypertension produces splanchnic vasodilation that triggers the cascade of events leading to release of Na retentive vasoconstrictor hormones. Management of ascites caused by cirrhosis is based on improving the Na excretion with diuretics and Na restriction in diet. Refractory ascites and hepatorenal syndrome are the complications of ascites that carry a very high mortality. Large volume paracentesis and transjugular intrahepatic porto-systemic shunts are useful in managing patients with refractory ascites. Liver transplant is the only way to improve survival in ascites caused by cirrhosis.

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