Helical computed tomographic scan in the evaluation of mediastinal gunshot wounds

Dangerous passage: the utility and accuracy of modern chest computed tomography in penetrating thoracic injuries with potential transmediastinal trajectory

AIM

The aim of this study is to evaluate utility and reliability of chest CT as a standalone screening modality for stable patients with thoracic GSWs and potential transmediastinal trajectories.

METHODS

All patients with thoracic GSWs over a 5-year period were identified. Unstable patients requiring immediate surgery were excluded and the remaining underwent chest CT with intravenous contrast. Sensitivity and specificity for clinically significant injuries were tested against an aggregate gold standard of discharge diagnosis including imaging, operative and clinical findings.

RESULTS

A total of 216 patients met inclusion criteria and underwent chest CT. After imaging, 65 (30.1%) had indication for immediate surgery, of which 10 (4.6%) underwent a thoracic procedure for chest injuries while 151 (69.9%) were selected for nonoperative management (NOM). 11 (5.1%) required a delayed thoracic operation, none due to injuries missed on CT. The remaining 140 (64.8%) underwent successful NOM. Up to 195 (90.3%) patients had successful NOM of thoracic injuries. Only 9.2% required additional imaging, all negative. CT identified a cardiac injury in one case and a vascular injury in two cases, all confirmed by surgery, while one thoracic IVC injury missed on CT was found intraoperatively. 2 patients had CT suspicious for esophageal injury, ruled out by following investigations. There was one death in the total cohort, none in the NOM group.

CONCLUSIONS

Modern high-quality CT provides highly accurate and reliable screening modality for penetrating chest and mediastinal injuries and can be used as a standalone study in most patients or to guide further tests. Chest CT facilitated successful NOM.

Impact of Postoperative Imaging Following Emergency Surgery for Penetrating Ballistic Thoracic Trauma

INTRODUCTION

Patients undergoing emergent surgical procedures after penetrating trauma can benefit from postoperative imaging studies to identify potential missed injuries or indications to additional surgery. Aim of this study is to describe postoperative imaging findings in patients who underwent emergent operation for thoracic gunshot wounds (GSWs) and the subsequent need for further surgery, diagnostic evaluations or consults.

METHODS

Patients who survived to receive imaging evaluation after emergency surgery for penetrating chest trauma in a level I trauma center between 2017 and 2021 were included. Results of postoperative diagnostic evaluation were screened to determine their impact on the subsequent management.

RESULTS

Overall, 125 patients admitted with a thoracic GSW underwent an emergent surgical procedure and 29 survived to receive postoperative imaging and were included. Postoperative CT-scan was performed in 26 (89.6%) patients, echocardiography in 8 (27.5%). Other tests included esophagoscopy (1) and bronchoscopy (1). Impact on management of abnormal imaging included a new indication to surgery or additional procedures in 7 cases and need for additional imaging or consults in other 8 cases. Bone fractures and lung injuries were more often diagnosed on postoperative CT-scan. In 3 patients, abnormal echocardiographic findings led to a second cardiac operation.

CONCLUSION

Following emergency surgery for penetrating trauma, completion of injury assessment with CT-scan can lead to identification of missed or additional injuries, while other imaging is indicated according to operative findings. In this study, 24.1% had additional surgical pathology identified by postoperative imaging while others had findings requiring additional studies or specialist consult evaluations.

CT metal artifact reduction algorithms: Toward a framework for objective performance assessment

Purpose

Although several metal artifact reduction (MAR) algorithms for computed tomography (CT) scanning are commercially available, no quantitative, rigorous, and reproducible method exists for assessing their performance. The lack of assessment methods poses a challenge to regulators, consumers, and industry. We explored a phantom‐based framework for assessing an important aspect of MAR performance: how applying MAR in the presence of metal affects model observer performance at a low‐contrast detectability (LCD) task This work is, to our knowledge, the first model observer–based framework for the evaluation of MAR algorithms in the published literature.

Methods

We designed a numerical head phantom with metal implants. In order to incorporate an element of randomness, the phantom included a rotatable inset with an inhomogeneous background. We generated simulated projection data for the phantom. We applied two variants of a simple MAR algorithm, sinogram inpainting, to the projection data, that we reconstructed using filtered backprojection. To assess how MAR affected observer performance, we examined the detectability of a signal at the center of a region of interest (ROI) by a channelized Hotelling observer (CHO). As a figure of merit, we used the area under the ROC curve (AUC).

Results

We used simulation to test our framework on two variants of the MAR technique of sinogram inpainting. We found that our method was able to resolve the difference in two different MAR algorithms’ effect on LCD task performance, as well as the difference in task performances when MAR was applied, vs not.

Conclusion

We laid out a phantom‐based framework for objective assessment of how MAR impacts low‐contrast detectability, that we tested on two MAR algorithms. Our results demonstrate the importance of testing MAR performance over a range of object and imaging parameters, since applying MAR does not always improve the quality of an image for a given diagnostic task. Our framework is an initial step toward developing a more comprehensive objective assessment method for MAR, which would require developing additional phantoms and methods specific to various clinical applications of MAR, and increasing study efficiency.

Determining Trajectory to Predict Injury: The Use of X-Ray During Resuscitation in Gunshot Wounds

BACKGROUND

The practice of marking gunshot wounds and obtaining X-rays (XRs) has been performed to determine the trajectory of missiles to help identify internal injuries. We hypothesized that surgeons would have poor accuracy in predicting injuries and that X-rays do not alter the clinical decision.

METHODS

We developed a 50-patient (89 injury sites) PowerPoint survey based on cases seen at our level 1 trauma center from 2012 to 2014. Images of a silhouetted BodyMan (BM) with wounds marked, XRs, and vital signs (VSs) were shown in series for 20 s each. Surgeons were asked to record which organs they thought could be injured and to document their clinical decision. Data were analyzed to determine the inter-rater reliability (agreement, intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]) for each mode of clinical information (BM, XR, VS). Predicted versus actual injuries were compared using absolute agreements.

RESULTS

Ten surgeons completed the survey. We found that no single piece of information was helpful in allowing the surgeon to accurately predict injuries. Pulmonary injury had the highest agreement among all injuries (ICC = 0.727). VSs had the highest ICC in determining the clinical plan for the patient (ICC = 0.342), whereas both BM and XR had low ICCs (0.162 and 0.183, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that marking wounds and obtaining X-rays, other than a chest X-ray, did not result in accuracy in predicting injury nor alter the clinical decision. VSs were the only piece of information found significant in determining clinical management. We conclude that marking wounds for X-rays is an unnecessary step during the initial resuscitation of patients with gunshot wounds.

Usefulness of routine computed tomography in the evaluation of penetrating war injuries to the chest

OBJECTIVES

This review was conducted to compare the contributions of chest X-ray (CXR) and computed tomography (CT) towards detecting intrathoracic damage in patients with penetrating war injuries to the chest and to determine whether identification of additional injuries by chest CT will have an impact on the choice of therapeutic interventions and clinical outcomes.

METHODS

We reviewed records of 449 patients (374 men, mean age 29.3 ± 14.8 years) who were admitted to our hospital with penetrating war injuries to the chest over a 7-year period. Collected data included mechanisms of injury, associated injuries, results of CXRs and chest CTs, methods of management, in-hospital stays, complications and mortalities.

RESULTS

Immediate screening CXRs were obtained in all patients not requiring emergent thoracotomies, of which 91.4% showed positive signs of injury. Chest CTs were performed at the discretion of the physicians in 49.4% of patients, and CXR-positive findings were confirmed in all cases, while revealing additional injuries in 11% of patients. Chest CT findings led to additional closed chest drainage in 5.6% of patients but had no impact on treatment strategy in 94.4% of scanned patients. Follow-up CXRs showed new positive findings in 22 patients, leading to additional closed chest drainage in 3 patients and delayed open thoracotomies in 7 other patients.

CONCLUSIONS

CXRs continue as the primary diagnostic modality in the assessment of patients with penetrating war injuries to the chest. Chest CTs can be omitted in most patients, thus reducing CT imaging case-load substantially, while most clinically significant chest injuries remain sufficiently recognized.

Posterior Thoracic Stab Wounds: Evaluating the Value of Commonly Used Radiologic Modalities

This study was performed to assess our institution's experience with stab injuries to the posterior mediastinal box. We examine the value of performing CT of the chest and esophagram in conjunction with a chest X-ray (CXR) over performing CXR(s) alone in evaluating this group of patients. We performed a retrospective study covering a 10-year period consisting of patients with stab wounds to the posterior mediastinal box. Age, gender, and injury severity score as demographic data points were collected. CXR, CT, and esophagram results; identified injuries; and subsequent interventions were analyzed. Of 78 patients who met the inclusion criteria, a total of 55 patients underwent esophagram, one had a false-positive result, and zero had their course altered by the study. Sixty-six patients underwent CT imaging, and there were nine missed findings on initial CXR. Five of these were clinically insignificant and the remaining four were managed with a chest tube alone. There were no tracheobronchial, esophageal, cardiac, or great vessel injuries. Hemodynamically stable, asymptomatic patients with stab wounds to the posterior mediastinal box do not require routine CT and esophagram in the absence of CXR and cardiac ultrasonographic abnormalities.

Accuracy of CT chest without oral contrast for ruling out esophageal perforation using fluoroscopic esophagography as reference standard: a retrospective study

PURPOSE

Esophageal perforation has a high mortality rate. Fluoroscopic esophagography (FE) is the procedure of choice for diagnosing esophageal perforation. However, FE can be difficult to perform in seriously ill patients.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed charts and scans of all patients who had undergone thoracic CT (TCT) without oral contrast and FE for suspicion of esophageal perforation at our hospital between October, 2010 and December, 2015. Scans were interpreted by a single consultant radiologist having > 5 years of relevant experience. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 20. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) of TCT were computed using FE as reference standard.

RESULTS

Of 122 subjects, 106 (83%) were male and their median age was 42 [inter-quartile range (IQR) 29-53] years. Esophageal perforation was evident on FE in 15 (8%) cases. Sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of TCT for detecting esophageal perforation were 100, 54.6, 23.4 and 100%, respectively. When TCT was negative (n = 107), an alternative diagnosis was evident in 65 cases.

CONCLUSION

Thoracic computed tomography (TCT) had 100% sensitivity and negative predictive value for excluding esophageal perforation. FE may be omitted in patients who have no evidence of mediastinal collection, pneumomediastinum or esophageal wall defect on TCT. However, in the presence of any of these features, FE is still necessary to confirm or exclude the presence of an esophageal perforation.

Management of esophageal injuries secondary to trauma

Traumatic esophageal injuries occur less than 10% of the time in the setting of blunt or penetrating trauma. The purpose of this literature review is to provide an update on the most recent changes involving the diagnosis and treatment of esophageal injuries. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, to identify articles written in English language with the terms "non- iatrogenic", "esophageal", "trauma", "diagnosis", "management", and "prognosis". Case reports and articles involving non-traumatic esophageal perforations were excluded. Fifty pertinent articles in English language from 1947 to 2015 were selected for review. Based on the review of all articles, we designed a diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm to facilitate the diagnosis and management of the traumatic esophageal injury.

Diagnosis and management of thoracic and abdominal vascular injuries

Thoracic and abdominal vascular injuries present a formidable challenge to the most experienced surgeon. As prehospital care improves, more patients with these injuries are reaching the hospital alive. Thus, the trauma surgeon must be prepared to deal with them rapidly and precisely. Hemodynamically unstable patients should be transferred directly to the operating room. In stable patients with penetrating thoracic wounds, chest X-ray and arteriography are typically employed to exclude vascular injury. Patients sustaining blunt chest trauma can be screened effectively with CT scanning. Incisions are chosen based on the injured vessel. Hemorrhagic shock is the usual presentation for abdominal vascular trauma. A high index of suspicion is critical in diagnosing occult injuries. This presentation reviews the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of major thoracic and abdominal vascular injuries.

Thoracic computed tomography is an effective screening modality in patients with penetrating injuries to the chest

BACKGROUND

The precise role of thoracic CT in penetrating chest trauma remains to be defined. We hypothesized that thoracic CT effectively screens hemodynamically normal patients with penetrating thoracic trauma to surgery vs. expectant management (NOM).

METHODS

A ten-year review of all penetrating torso cases was retrospectively analyzed from our urban University-based trauma center. We included hemodynamically normal patients (systolic blood pressure ≥90) with penetrating chest injuries that underwent screening thoracic CT. Hemodynamically unstable patients and diaphragmatic injuries were excluded. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 212 patients (mean injury severity score=24, Abbreviated Injury Score for Chest=3.9) met inclusion criteria. Of these, 84.3% underwent NOM, 9.1% necessitated abdominal exploration, 6.6% underwent exploration for retained hemothorax/empyema, 6.6% underwent immediate thoracic exploration for significant injuries on chest CT, and 1.0% underwent delayed thoracic exploration for missed injuries. Thoracic CT had a sensitivity of 82%, specificity of 99%, positive predictive value of 90%, a negative predictive value of 99%, and an accuracy of 99% in predicting surgery vs. NOM.

CONCLUSIONS

Thoracic CT has a negative predictive value of 99% in triaging hemodynamically normal patients with penetrating chest trauma. Screening thoracic CT successfully excludes surgery in patients with non-significant radiologic findings.

Western Trauma Association Critical Decisions in Trauma: Diagnosis and management of esophageal injuries

This is a recommended management algorithm from the Western Trauma Association addressing the diagnostic evaluation and management of esophageal injuries in adult patients. Because there is a paucity of published prospective randomized clinical trials that have generated Class I data, the recommendations herein are based primarily on published observational studies and expert opinion of Western Trauma Association members. The algorithms and accompanying comments represent a safe and sensible approach that can be followed at most trauma centers. We recognize that there will be patient, personnel, institutional, and situational factors that may warrant or require deviation from the recommended algorithm. We encourage institutions to use this guideline to formulate their own local protocols.The algorithm contains letters at decision points; the corresponding paragraphs in the text elaborate on the thought process and cite pertinent literature. The annotated algorithm is intended to (a) serve as a quick bedside reference for clinicians; (b) foster more detailed patient care protocols that will allow for prospective data collection and analysis to identify best practices; and (c) generate research projects to answer specific questions concerning decision making in the management of adults with esophageal injuries.

Self-inflicted nail-gun injury with intracranial and intracardiac nails

Nail-gun injury is commonly encountered in the emergency department. The severity of the injury depends on the specific injuries to organs and vascular structures. Computed tomography (CT) is the ideal imaging test of choice, as it can identify the more critical injuries that require immediate intervention. We present a case of self-inflicted nail-gun injury with intracranial and intracardiac nails that was optimally evaluated with CT. CT significantly changed the patient’s management, giving priority to potentially life-threatening penetrating cardiac injuries.

Transmediastinal gunshot wounds in a mature trauma centre: changing perspectives

BACKGROUND

Transmediastinal gunshot wounds are associated with a high mortality and frequently require operative intervention. The purpose of this study was to identify the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of these injuries in a mature trauma system with decreasing prehospital time intervals.

METHODS

Patients admitted to a large urban Level 1 trauma centre between 1/2006 and 12/2010 sustaining a firearm injury to the torso were identified. Transmediastinal gunshot wounds were defined as missile tracts traversing the mediastinum identified on CT images, operative notes or autopsy reports.

RESULTS

Overall, 133 patients met study criteria. A total of 116 patients (87.2%) were haemodynamically unstable or had no vital signs on arrival to the Emergency Department. Ninety-seven (83.6%) of these patients required a resuscitative thoracotomy resulting in 8 survivors (6.0%). There were 17 haemodynamically stable patients (12.8%) identified, 14 of whom underwent CT scan evaluation. Six patients subsequently required operative intervention. Only 11 patients (8.3%) in the study population were successfully managed nonoperatively. The overall mortality was 78.9%, and for those who reached the hospital with vital signs, the mortality was 24.3%.

CONCLUSIONS

Transmediastinal gunshot wounds encountered in a mature trauma centre are highly lethal injuries requiring resuscitative thoracotomy in most instances. Changing perspectives in these injuries may reflect the effects of an evolving prehospital care.

Penetrating cardiac injury and the significance of chest computed tomography findings

In rare circumstances, hemodynamically stable patients can harbor serious penetrating cardiac injuries. We hypothesized that chest computed tomography (CCT) is potentially useful in evaluation. The records of all patients admitted to our center with wounds to the precordium or who sustained a hemothorax or pneumothorax after penetrating torso injuries over a 48-month period were reviewed. Those having an admission CCT were studied. The potential diagnostic value of hemopericardium (HPC) and pneumopericardium (PPC) on CCT was examined. Most of the 333 patients were male [293 (88.0 %)] with a roughly equal distribution of gunshot [189 (56.8 %)] and stab [144 (43.2 %)] wounds. Mean age was 28.7 ± 12.6 years. Thirteen (3.9 %) patients had cardiac injuries that were operatively managed. Eleven (3.3 %) CCT studies demonstrated HPC and/or PPC. Ten of these patients had an injury with one false positive. Retained hemothorax and proximity findings on the three false negative CCT studies led to video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery or subxiphoid exploration with diagnosis of the injury. HPC and/or PPC on CCT had a sensitivity of 76.9 %, specificity of 99.7 %, positive predictive value of 90.9 %, and negative predictive value (NPV) of 99.1 % for cardiac injuries. However, including all findings that changed management, CCT had a sensitivity and NPV of 100 %. CCT is a potentially useful modality for the evaluation of cardiac injuries in high-risk stable patients. The presence of HPC and/or PPC on CCT after penetrating thoracic trauma is highly indicative of a significant cardiac injury.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia in severe traumatic brain injury: the clinical significance of admission chest computed tomography findings

BACKGROUND

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in severe traumatic brain injury (STBI) is a significant morbidity. Bilateral dependent consolidation (BDC) can be seen on admission chest computed tomography (CCT) in STBI. We hypothesize that this finding may be associated with VAP.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively studied patients who sustained STBI after blunt injury and survived >48 h, who were admitted over a 40-mo period. We defined STBI as an admission Glasgow Coma Scale Score ≤ 8. We identified VAP by an elevated white blood cell count, a new infiltrate on chest x-ray, and a positive respiratory culture in a ventilated patient. Variables included demographics, injury, admission CCT, and culture data. We compared BDC-positive and BDC-negative patients.

RESULTS

There were 33 cases of VAP in 94 study patients (35.1%), in whom the incidence of intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring (66.7% versus 39.3%; P = 0.011) was significantly increased. Ventilator-associated pneumonia was significantly increased in the 28 patients (29.8%) in the BDC-positive group (16 [57.1%] versus 17 (25.6%); P = 0.004). Bilateral dependent consolidation independently predicted VAP. In the 33 VAP cases, gram-negative organisms were present in 27 patients (81.8%), with a predominance of Enterobacteriaceae (16 patients [48.5%]). Culture results did not significantly differ between the early (<4 d) versus late or BDC-positive versus BDC-negative VAP groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Ventilator-associated pneumonia is common after STBI, and BDC is independently associated; however, there is no predilection for specific organisms. Admission CCT findings may prove useful in identifying a group of STBI patients at higher risk for VAP.

Chest computed tomography for penetrating thoracic trauma after normal screening chest roentgenogram

BACKGROUND

Chest computed tomography (CCT) is a method of screening for intrathoracic injuries in hemodynamically stable patients with penetrating thoracic trauma. The objective of this study was to examine the changes in utilization of CCT over time and evaluate its contribution to guiding therapeutic intervention.

METHODS

A level 1 trauma center registry was queried between 2006 and 2011. Patients undergoing CCT in the emergency department after penetrating thoracic trauma as well as patients undergoing thoracic operations for penetrating thoracic trauma were identified. Patient demographics, operative indications, use of CCT, injuries, and hospital admissions were analyzed.

RESULTS

In all, 617 patients had CCTs performed, of whom 61.1% (371 of 617) had a normal screening plain chest radiograph (CXR). In 14.0% (51 of 371) of these cases, the CCT revealed findings not detected on screening CXR. The majority of these injuries were occult pneumothoraces or hemothoraces (84.3%; 43 of 51), of which 27 (62.8%) underwent tube thoracostomy. In only 0.5% (2 of 371), did the results of CCT alone lead to an operative indication: exploration for hemopericardium. The use of CCT in our patients significantly increased overall (28.8% to 71.4%) as well as after a normal screening CXR (23.3% to 74.6%) over the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of CCT for penetrating thoracic trauma increased 3.5-fold during the study period with a concurrent increase in findings of uncertain clinical significance. Patients with a normal screening CXR should be triaged with 3-hour delayed CXR, serial physical examinations, and focused assessment with sonography for trauma; and CCT should only be used selectively as a diagnostic modality.

Role of imaging in penetrating and blunt traumatic injury to the heart

Cardiac injury due to blunt or penetrating chest trauma is common and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Understanding the mechanisms, types, and complications of cardiac injuries and the roles of various imaging modalities in characterizing them is important for appropriate diagnosis and treatment. These injuries have not been well documented at imaging, but there are now fast and accurate methods for evaluating the heart and associated mediastinal structures. The authors review the broad spectrum of injuries that can result from blunt or penetrating trauma to the chest, as well as the imaging modalities commonly used in the acute trauma setting for evaluation of the heart and mediastinal structures. A pictorial review of both common and, to date, rarely documented cardiac injuries imaged with a variety of modalities is also presented. While many imaging modalities are available, the authors demonstrate the value of multidetector computed tomography (CT) for the initial evaluation of patients with blunt or penetrating chest trauma. With the advent of multidetector CT, imaging of cardiac injury has increased and accurate identification of these rare but potentially lethal injuries has become paramount for improving survival. Selection of the most appropriate modality for evaluation and recognition of the imaging findings in cardiac injuries in the acute trauma setting is important to expedite treatment and improve survival.

Managing a wooden foreign body in the neck

An interesting case is presented of a wooden foreign body in the neck entering through the right lower vestibule of the mouth. The foreign body traveled subcutaneously in the neck and got stuck in the clavicle, without damaging any vital structures. In this case, the authors highlight the mode of entry of the foreign body, the peculiarity of the wooden foreign body, the management protocol and the outcomes of the penetrating neck injury by the wooden stick.

A civilian perspective on ballistic trauma and gunshot injuries

BACKGROUND

Gun violence is on the rise in some European countries, however most of the literature on gunshot injuries pertains to military weaponry and is difficult to apply to civilians, due to dissimilarities in wound contamination and wounding potential of firearms and ammunition. Gunshot injuries in civilians have more focal injury patterns and should be considered distinct entities.

METHODS

A search of the National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health MEDLINE database was performed using PubMed.

RESULTS

Craniocerebral gunshot injuries are often lethal, especially after suicide attempts. The treatment of non space consuming haematomas and the indications for invasive pressure measurement are controversial. Civilian gunshot injuries to the torso mostly intend to kill; however for those patients who do not die at the scene and are hemodynamically stable, insertion of a chest tube is usually the only required procedure for the majority of penetrating chest injuries. In penetrating abdominal injuries there is a trend towards non-operative care, provided that the patient is hemodynamically stable. Spinal gunshots can also often be treated without operation. Gunshot injuries of the extremities are rarely life-threatening but can be associated with severe morbidity.With the exception of craniocerebral, bowel, articular, or severe soft tissue injury, the use of antibiotics is controversial and may depend on the surgeon's preference.

CONCLUSION

The treatment strategy for patients with gunshot injuries to the torso mostly depends on the hemodynamic status of the patient. Whereas hemodynamically unstable patients require immediate operative measures like thoracotomy or laparotomy, hemodynamically stable patients might be treated with minor surgical procedures (e.g. chest tube) or even conservatively.

[Aortic thrombi associated with thoracic gunshot wound]

We report the case of a stroke due to a ballistic thoracic traumatism. The vascular injury, provoked by the passage of the bullet, associated to a procoagulating state led to the formation of a thrombus in the ascending aorta. The migration of this thrombus caused a stroke, finally reversible upon medical treatment only.

Flexible esophagoscopy as a diagnostic tool for traumatic esophageal injuries

BACKGROUND

The management and clinical outcome of patients suffering esophageal trauma depends on a prompt diagnosis. The detection of esophageal injuries by clinical examination, esophagography, or computed tomography is limited. This study aimed to assess the yield and clinical utility of flexible esophagoscopy (FE) in the diagnosis of traumatic esophageal injuries.

PATIENTS

During 7 years, we conducted a retrospective (1998-2003) and prospective (2003-2005) study of 163 victims admitted to a trauma hospital, and submitted to FE because of suspected esophageal trauma. Esophageal injury was defined as laceration or perforation, hematoma, abrasion, hematin spots, or ecchymosis. The endoscopic diagnosis was compared with surgical findings or clinical follow-up.

RESULTS

No traumatic lesion was observed in 139 patients (85.3%), esophageal injuries were detected in 23 (14.1%), and one examination was inconclusive (esophageal stricture, 0.6%). Lacerations were detected in 14 patients and confirmed surgically. Esophageal contusion was observed in nine patients and out of these, five patients underwent surgical exploration and four were managed nonoperatively. The assessment of esophageal injury by FE demonstrated 95.8% sensitivity, 100% specificity, 99.3% accuracy, 100% positive predictive value, and 99.2% negative predictive value. The likelihood ratio for a negative examination was 0.041 and the Youden J Index was 99.2%.

CONCLUSIONS

FE appears to be an accurate diagnostic tool in the assessment of esophageal injuries. Two main lesions were noted: laceration and contusion. Laceration requires surgical repair. Contusion represents a nonperforative injury of the esophageal wall, requires correlation with computed tomography, and may be managed nonoperatively.

Surgical management of penetrating pulmonary injuries

Chest injuries were reported as early as 3000 BC in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Ancient Greek chronicles reveal that they had anatomic knowledge of the thoracic structures. Even in the ancient world, most of the therapeutic modalities for chest wounds and traumatic pulmonary injuries were developed during wartime.

The majority of lung injuries can be managed non-operatively, but pulmonary injuries that require operative surgical intervention can be quite challenging. Recent progress in treating severe pulmonary injuries has relied on finding shorter and simpler lung-sparing techniques. The applicability of stapled pulmonary tractotomy was confirmed as a safe and valuable procedure.

Advancement in technology have revolutionized thoracic surgery and ushered in the era of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS), providing an alternative method for accurate and direct evaluation of the lung parenchyma, mediastinum, and diaphragmatic injuries.

The aim of this article is to describe the incidence of the penetrating pulmonary injuries, the ultimate techniques used in its operative management, as well as the diagnosis, complications, and morbidity and mortality.

Role of Selective Management of Penetrating Injuries in Mass Casualty Incidents

Terrorist violence has emerged as an increasingly common cause of mass casualty incidents (MCI) due to the sequelae of explosive devices and shooting massacres. A proper emergency medical system disaster plan for dealing with an MCI is of paramount importance to salvage lives. Because the number of casualties following a MCI is likely to exceed the medical resources of the receiving health care facilities, patients must be appropriately sorted to establish treatment priorities. By necessity, clinical signs are likely to prove cornerstones of triage during MCI. An appropriate and effective application of experiences learned from the use of selective nonoperative management (SNOM) techniques may prove essential in this triage process. The present appraisal of the available literature strongly supports that the appropriate utilization of these clinical indicators to identify patients appropriate for SNOM is essential, critical, and readily applicable. We also review the initial emergent triage priorities for penetrating injuries to the head, neck, torso, and extremities in a mass casualty setting.

Penetrating neck injuries

The modern approach to patients presenting with penetrating injuries to the neck requires the cautious integration of clinical findings and appropriate imaging studies for formulation of an effective, safe, and minimally invasive modality of treatment. The optimal management of these injuries has undergone considerable debate regarding surgical versus nonsurgical treatment approaches. More recent advances in imaging technology continue to evolve, providing more accurate and timely information for the management of these patients. In this article the authors review both historic and recent articles that have formulated the current management of penetrating injuries to the neck.

The role of chest computed tomography in trauma

Chest computed tomography (CCT) evaluation for trauma encompasses two main objectives: (1) The evaluation of the acutely injured in the search for diagnoses and (2) follow up assessment or diagnosis of pulmonary complications in the hospitalised patient. In the acute phase of evaluation, CCT has become particularly helpful for the diagnosis of blunt thoracic aortic injury (BAI), great vessel injury, extent of lung contusion, occult hemothorax, occult pneumothorax, spinal fractures and spinal cord injuries and to determine the tract of transmediastinal gun shot wounds. In the subacute phase, CCT has gained popularity for diagnosing pulmonary embolism and evaluation of retained hemothorax. Technological advances have lead to better diagnostic capabilities that can be obtained quickly but, particularly in the trauma patient, there is little consistent data supporting an outcome improvement in the majority of patients despite changes in clinical management. Further data is needed to support use of CCT in select trauma patient populations to increase useful diagnostic yield and cost effectiveness.

The Increasing Use of Chest Computed Tomography for Trauma: Is it Being Overutilized?

OBJECTIVE

Chest computerized tomography (CCT) has gained popularity in trauma evaluation, but it is expensive, increases exposure to radiation, and leads to findings of debatable clinical significance. The objective of this study was to determine the change in usage of CCT over time and the number of injuries missed on plain chest radiograph (CXR) with normal findings that required therapy.

METHODS

Data on all patients evaluated with a screening CXR during a 7-year period were extracted from a Level I center trauma registry. The incidence of CCT utilization during the duration of the study was identified. Patients who had CCT done after the initial CXR were analyzed separately for the presence of occult injuries. The association of these findings with demographic and injury data were examined.

RESULTS

There were 2,326 CCT performed, and 1,873 (80.5%) of them were after negative CXRs. The percentage of patients studied with CCT increased incrementally from 2.7% to 28.7% for blunt and from 0.4% to 2.9% for penetrating injury. The identification of occult pneumothorax, hemothorax, rib fractures, and lung contusions significantly increased during the study period with the increased frequency of CCT use. There were 102 occult pneumothoraces and/or hemothoraces identified, but only 12 patients underwent tube thoracostomy during the 7-year period. There were 43 patients with blunt aortic injury (BAI) and 6 (13.9%) of these patients had normal CXR findings. There was no trend in increased BAI diagnosed during the study period, although the utilization of CCT was increased.

CONCLUSIONS

There has been a 10-fold increase in use of CCT for trauma evaluation. Although occult findings increased, the number of patients who needed treatment was small. The excess utilization of CCT after negative CXR needs continued refinement to identify the small number of potentially lethal injuries while reducing the number of trivial findings.

Triage and Outcome of Patients with Mediastinal Penetrating Trauma

BACKGROUND

A retrospective study was conducted detailing an experience with echocardiography and contrast-enhanced helical computed tomographic angiographic (CTA) scans in the evaluation of stable patients with mediastinal penetrating trauma (MPT).

METHODS

Unstable patients underwent emergent operative intervention, and stable patients underwent chest roentgenogram, transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), and CTA. Further testing (angiogram, bronchoscopy, esophagoscopy, esophagogram) was done only if one of these studies revealed evidence of a trajectory in the vicinity of major vasculature or viscera.

RESULTS

Between 1997 and 2003, 207 patients had MPT. Seventy-two (35%) were unstable (45 gun shot wounds, 27 stab wounds) and 19 died in the emergency department. Fifty-three had emergent intervention and 32 survived. Work-up was done on 135 stable patients (65%) consisting of 46 gunshot wounds and 89 stab wounds, of which 5 had a positive TTE result and underwent a repair of a cardiac injury. CTA evaluation was normal in almost 80% of patients, who subsequently did not require further evaluation or treatment. In the stable patients, endoscopy or esophagography confirmed one tracheal injury and no esophageal injury. In the entire group, 10 patients (7%) had occult injury, and there were no deaths or missed injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

In cases of MPT, unstable patients require surgery, and in stable patients, TTE and chest CTA are effective screening tools. Patients with a negative TTE and CTA results can be observed and may not require further testing or endoscopy, whereas patients with positive TTE or CTA results require further assessment to exclude occult injury.

Screening helical computed tomographic scanning in haemodynamic stable patients with transmediastinal gunshot wounds

AIM

The purpose of this study was to review and evaluate the efficacy of contrast-enhanced helical computed tomographic (CT) scanning in evaluating potential mediastinal injuries in stable patients with transmediastinal gunshot wounds (TMGSWs).

METHODS

During the review period, 01 January 2002-31 May 2005, the medical records of all haemodynamically stable patients with TMGSWs were retrieved and reviewed for demographics, diagnostic workup, treatment and complications. Screening CT was considered inconclusive in the presence of a mediastinal haematoma, pneumomediastinum or a missile track in proximity of major mediastinal structures. Inconclusive CT scans were further evaluated with angiography, and/or oesophography, and/or cardiac ultrasound.

RESULTS

Fifty consecutive haemodynamically stable patients with TMGSWs were identified. Thirty-five CT scans were performed, of which 29 (82.9%) were conclusive. Further diagnostic evaluation in the remaining six patients showed no injury. All patients were observed in a high-care unit and there were no missed injuries. The hospital charges generated with the CT scan based protocol were significantly less than with standard evaluation.

CONCLUSION

Contrast enhanced helical CT scanning is a safe, efficient and cost effective screening tool for evaluating haemodynamically stable patients with TMGSWs.

Multiple thoracoabdominal gunshot wounds with complicated trajectories

A 41-year-old man was shot three times with a custom-made handgun. There were six small round wounds on the surface from two bullets that went into the body and one bullet found in a wall behind the victim at the scene. The gunshot wound in the left supraclavicular region bled massively. He was transferred to our hospital and soon fell into shock. A chest radiogram showed right hemothorax. Resuscitation and blood transfusion were started, and right thoracic drainage was immediately undertaken. The left subclavicular region was incised, and bleeding from the left subclavian vein stopped. Right thoracotomy was done, and bleeding from the lung was controlled. Laparotomy was needed to look for the missing trajectory. Speculation regarding trajectories of bullets in patients with multiple thoracoabdominal gunshot wounds is difficult, and an emergent operation is often needed to control bleeding or to evaluate possible organ injury.

Penetrating Cardiac Injuries: Recent Experience in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Penetrating cardiac injury is a dramatic and lethal form of trauma. The majority of patients will die before reaching medical care, but for those who arrive at hospital alive, the diagnostic acumen and rapid surgical intervention of physicians and surgeons can lead to successful outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A structured diagnostic and management approach is used in our trauma unit to deal with penetrating cardiac injury. A retrospective study of 117 patients with penetrating trauma to the heart was conducted over 32 months; the purpose of this study was to describe our protocol and review overall outcome with this type of injury. Demographic details, mechanism of injury, and mode of presentation were recorded. Mortality and morbidity data were collated and echocardiographic follow-up was performed.

RESULTS

There were 109 male patients, mean age 29 years (range: 15-54 years) and 8 female patients, mean age 35 years (range: 23-56 years). Most patients (96/117) had sustained stab wounds, and the associated mortality was 15.6%. Twenty-one patients had sustained gunshot wounds (GSW), with a mortality of 81%. Gunshot wounds were significantly more likely to result in death (P<or=0.0001). Five patients sustained multiple cardiac wounds, and three of them died. The risk of death was not different between patients sustaining single or multiple cardiac wounds (P=0.11). Eleven patients had thoracoabdominal injury, and 3/11 (27%) died; all of those that died had sustained GSW. The risk of death was not different between patients sustaining thoracoabdominal wounds and those with isolated thoracic injury (P=1.0). Among the 51 patients with stab wounds who presented with cardiac tamponade, the mortality was only 8%. Compared to the other patients with stab wounds, cardiac tamponade conferred a significant survival advantage (P=0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

A high index of suspicion for penetrating cardiac injury and an understanding of the modes of presentation can lead to rapid diagnosis even by inexperienced junior staff. Such a structured approach to patients with penetrating trauma to the chest leads to early definitive management and acceptable results.

Imaging of penetrating chest trauma

This article discusses the role of imaging in evaluating patients who are admitted with penetrating injuries to the chest. Emphasis is placed on the role of multidetector row CT, which has been introduced in the past 5 years into the arena of care for trauma victims. It is important to take full advantage of this new CT technology with its capability to produce high-resolution multiplanar and volumetric images to diagnose penetrating chest injuries. This article emphasizes detection of active bleeding and assessment of the mediastinum for penetrating injury.

Surgical treatment of traumatic esophageal perforations: analysis of 10 cases

PURPOSE

Traumatic esophageal perforations are infrequent. They represent a surgical dilemma for surgeons, especially if diagnosis is made late. Recently, it has been reported that mortality due to perforation of the esophagus has diminished independently of time of presentation. The experience with traumatic perforations of the esophagus is reviewed to determine morbidity-mortality and how it is affected by time.

METHODS

A retrospective clinical review was made of all patients with a diagnosis of traumatic perforation of the esophagus treated by the author. There were 10 patients, all of them male. Average age was 32 years (range 17 to 63). The cause of trauma was gunshot (7), blunt trauma (1) and foreign body (2). Four patients were treated within 24 hours of injury (early treatment). Treatment of 6 patients was delayed 56 to 168 hours after the injury (delayed treatment).

RESULTS

Patients treated early underwent primary repair. Delayed treatment included: primary repair (1), T-tube (2), drainage of cervical abscess and pulmonary decortication (2), and conservative treatment (1). There was 1 death in the delayed group (16.6%). One patient in the early treatment group (25%); 4 (66%) in the delayed treatment group had complications. Postoperative stay in the hospital was an average of 20.5 days for the early treatment group and 38 for the late treatment group.

CONCLUSIONS

Mortality of traumatic esophageal perforations has diminished significantly. Morbidity, particularly in delayed treatment, is still very high, with multiple operations and prolonged stays in intensive care units and surgical wards, resulting in high hospital costs. The main factor that seems to influence mortality-morbidity of traumatic esophageal perforations is the time of diagnosis. Every effort should be made to diagnose these injuries early. Once diagnosis is made, treatment should be aggressive and expeditious.

Penetrating injuries of the neck and the increasing role of CTA

Vascular injuries of the neck are most frequently the result of penetrating trauma. Diagnostic evaluation of hemodynamically stable patients who have suffered penetrating neck wounds is challenging and remains controversial. In order to reduce morbidity and mortality, prompt diagnosis and subsequent treatment of these injuries is critical. Traditionally, these patients undergo direct contrast angiography. However, this technique has limitations including its invasive nature and potential complications. The use of routine screening angiography has also been questioned because of the low rate of positive examinations. More recently, helical and multislice CT angiography (CTA) has emerged as a fast, minimally invasive accurate study to evaluate penetrating neck injuries. CTA is not operator-dependent and the results can be reproduced easily by using established technical parameters. It is readily available in most centers and allows the simultaneous evaluation of the extravascular soft tissues and bones.

Multislice CT in thoracic trauma

The introduction of CT imaging in the 1970s revolutionized all aspects of medical care, perhaps nowhere more so than in the evaluation of acutely injured patients. Just as single-slice helical scanning was a great advance over conventional CT, the capabilities of MSCT are proving to be dramatically superior to single-slice methods. Improved contrast bolus imaging, thinner slices, and isotropic voxels should enable the trauma radiologist to identify both major organ system disruption and subtle injuries more promptly. Multiplanar and three-dimensional reconstructions, a forte of MSCT, facilitate rapid communication of disease states with surgeons and others involved in the care of injured patients. In many centers, whole-body CT is beginning to supplant plain films of the chest and spine in the evaluation of severe trauma victims; the cost-effectiveness of such methods is still under evaluation.

[Thoracic ballistic traumatisms. Wounding agents and wound ballistic]

The adequate care of thoracic ballistic traumatisms implies a good preliminary knowledge of wounding agents, and of the principles governing lesion-based ballistic, in particular the role played by the meeting with an obstacle which modifies the ballistic behaviour of the projectile, with worsened wounding effects. Authors describe the principal types of involved projectiles and their wound profile applied to the thorax, while stressing the need to treat systematically the wound and not the weapon, and on the importance of the choice of the surgical exploration way of these lesions, which conditions, as from the initial stage, the later choices of the parietal closure and rebuilding methods. The importance of parietal disrepair is therefore an essential decisional factor in the assumption of responsibility and the definition of the therapeutic strategy of these casualties.

Reevaluation of diagnostic procedures for transmediastinal gunshot wounds

BACKGROUND

Little controversy surrounds the treatment of hemodynamically unstable patients with transmediastinal gunshot wounds (TMGSWs). These patients generally have cardiac or major vascular injuries and require immediate operation. In hemodynamically stable patients, debate surrounds the extent and order of the diagnostic evaluation. These patients can be uninjured, or can have occult vascular, esophageal, or tracheobronchial injuries. Evaluation has traditionally often included angiography, bronchoscopy, esophagoscopy, esophagography, and pericardial evaluation (i.e., pericardial window) for all hemodynamically stable patients with TMGSWs. Expansion of the use of computed tomographic (CT) scanning in penetrating injury led to a modification of our protocol. Currently, our TMGSW evaluation algorithm for stable patients consists of chest radiograph, focused abdominal sonography for trauma, and contrast-enhanced helical CT scan of the chest with directed further evaluation. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficiency of contrast-enhanced helical CT scan for evaluating potential mediastinal injuries and to determine whether patients can be simply observed or require further investigational studies.

METHODS

Medical records of hemodynamically stable patients admitted with TMGSWs over a 2-year period were reviewed for demographics, mechanism of injury, method of evaluation, operative interventions, injuries, length of stay, and complications. CT scans were considered positive if they contained a mediastinal hematoma or pneumomediastinum, or demonstrated proximity of the missile track to major mediastinal structures.

RESULTS

Twenty-two stable patients were studied. CT scans were positive in seven patients. Directed further diagnostic evaluation in those seven patients revealed two patients who required operative intervention. Sixty-eight percent of patients had negative CT scans and were observed in a monitored setting without further evaluation. There were no missed injuries. The hospital charges generated with the CT scan-based protocol are significantly less than with the standard evaluation.

CONCLUSION

Contrast-enhanced helical CT scanning is a safe, efficient, and cost-effective diagnostic tool for evaluating hemodynamically stable patients with mediastinal gunshot wounds. Positive CT scan results direct the further evaluation of potentially injured structures. Patients with negative results can safely be observed in a monitored setting without further evaluation.

Bullet markers--a simple technique to assist in the evaluation of penetrating trauma

Radio-opaque markers in penetrating trauma are useful in both the clinical evaluation of the injuries and in the permanent record of the location of the wounds. The use of an unfolded paperclip taped over the wound as a marker is recommended as a valuable adjunct in the radiological evaluation of penetrating trauma.

Penetrating injuries of the chest: indications for operation

Penetrating injuries to the chest present a frequent and challenging problem. The majority of these injuries can be managed non-operatively. The selection of patients for operation or observation can be made by clinical examination and appropriate investigations. The trauma ultrasound has become a valuable first-line tool to rule out pericardial tamponade. Spiral computed tomography of the chest is increasingly used to evaluate transmediastinal gunshot wounds and direct, if needed, further organ-specific tests, such as esophagography, aortography, or bronchoscopy. Minimally invasive techniques have found sound application in the thoracoscopic evacuation of undrained hemothorax and the laparoscopic evaluation of diaphragmatic trauma. In the operative arena, lung-sparing techniques with the use of staplers, like wedge resection and tractotomy, have allowed easier, faster, and effective control of bleeding without sacrificing unnecessarily normal pulmonary parenchyma. Knowledge of the new advancements in the field of thoracic trauma will allow surgeons to provide expert care and improved outcomes.