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Local application of interleukin-6 to the dorsal root ganglion induces tumor necrosis factor-α in the dorsal root ganglion and results in apoptosis of the dorsal root ganglion cells. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:926-32. [PMID: 21192292 DOI: 10.1097/brs.0b013e3181e7f4a9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN The mechanisms of apoptosis behind the formation of tissue reactions at the surface of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) exposed to the nucleus pulposus were studied with special reference to the role of interleukin-6 (IL-6), using electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry in rats. OBJECTIVE To study the role of IL-6 on the DRG. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA It has been reported that nucleus pulposus cells are capable to produce proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and IL-6. Recently, it was observed that local application of nucleus pulposus induced a characteristic tissue reaction at the surface of the DRG. This change was due to apoptosis of DRG neurons. However, the role of IL-6 is not known regarding the apoptosis of the DRG neurons. METHODS Recombinant IL-6 was applied between the L4 DRG and the dura to mimic a disc herniation of the L4-L5 disc in rats. The L4 DRGs were resected 24 hours after surgery. The sections were processed for immunohistochemistry using antisera to TNF-α. Furthermore, the sections of the specimens were observed using light and electron microscopy to confirm the induced apoptosis of the DRG neurons. The sections were also processed for immunohistochemistry, using antisera to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and Caspase 3. RESULTS TNF-α immunoreactivity was observed in the peripheral area of DRG at the site of the application of IL-6. Typical changes of the cell nuclei were observed in the DRG by light and electron microscopy, indicating the presence of apoptosis. The presence of ssDNA and Caspase 3 further enhanced the impression that there was apoptosis of the DRG neurons. CONCLUSION IL-6 seemed to induce TNF-α at the surface of DRG exposed to IL-6 and to induce a characteristic reaction at the surface of the DRG. IL-6 may thus play an important role in nucleus pulposus-induced apoptosis of the DRG neurons as well as TNF-α.
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Kim YM, Pae HO, Park JE, Lee YC, Woo JM, Kim NH, Choi YK, Lee BS, Kim SR, Chung HT. Heme oxygenase in the regulation of vascular biology: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011; 14:137-67. [PMID: 20624029 PMCID: PMC2988629 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Heme oxygenases (HOs) are the rate-limiting enzymes in the catabolism of heme into biliverdin, free iron, and carbon monoxide. Two genetically distinct isoforms of HO have been characterized: an inducible form, HO-1, and a constitutively expressed form, HO-2. HO-1 is a kind of stress protein, and thus regarded as a sensitive and reliable indicator of cellular oxidative stress. The HO system acts as potent antioxidants, protects endothelial cells from apoptosis, is involved in regulating vascular tone, attenuates inflammatory response in the vessel wall, and participates in angiogenesis and vasculogenesis. Endothelial integrity and activity are thought to occupy the central position in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovascular disease risk conditions converge in the contribution to oxidative stress. The oxidative stress leads to endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction with increases in vessel tone, cell growth, and gene expression that create a pro-thrombotic/pro-inflammatory environment. Subsequent formation, progression, and obstruction of atherosclerotic plaque may result in myocardial infarction, stroke, and cardiovascular death. This background provides the rationale for exploring the potential therapeutic role for HO system in the amelioration of vascular inflammation and prevention of adverse cardiovascular outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Myeong Kim
- Vascular System Research Center and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, South Korea
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Abstract
Macrophages have long been regarded as classic mediators of innate immunity because of their production of proinflammatory cytokines and their ability to induce apoptotic cell death. As a result of such activities and the detrimental long-term effect of kidney inflammation, macrophages principally have been regarded as mediators of glomerular damage, tubular cell death, and the downstream fibrotic events leading to chronic kidney disease. Although this has been the accepted consequence of macrophage infiltration in kidney disease, macrophages also play a critical role in normal organ development, cell turnover, and recovery from injury in many organs, including the kidney. There is also a growing awareness that there is considerable heterogeneity of phenotype and function within the macrophage population and that a greater understanding of these different states of activation may result in the development of therapies specifically designed to capitalize on this variation in phenotype and cellular responses. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of induction and consequences of classic versus alternative macrophage activation and highlight what additional therapeutic options this may provide for the management of both acute and chronic kidney disease as well as renal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Williams
- Monash Immunology and Stem Cell Laboratories, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Kim YM, Pae HO, Park JE, Lee YC, Woo JM, Kim NH, Choi YK, Lee BS, Kim SR, Chung HT. Heme oxygenase in the regulation of vascular biology: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010. [PMID: 20624029 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.31532988629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Heme oxygenases (HOs) are the rate-limiting enzymes in the catabolism of heme into biliverdin, free iron, and carbon monoxide. Two genetically distinct isoforms of HO have been characterized: an inducible form, HO-1, and a constitutively expressed form, HO-2. HO-1 is a kind of stress protein, and thus regarded as a sensitive and reliable indicator of cellular oxidative stress. The HO system acts as potent antioxidants, protects endothelial cells from apoptosis, is involved in regulating vascular tone, attenuates inflammatory response in the vessel wall, and participates in angiogenesis and vasculogenesis. Endothelial integrity and activity are thought to occupy the central position in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovascular disease risk conditions converge in the contribution to oxidative stress. The oxidative stress leads to endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction with increases in vessel tone, cell growth, and gene expression that create a pro-thrombotic/pro-inflammatory environment. Subsequent formation, progression, and obstruction of atherosclerotic plaque may result in myocardial infarction, stroke, and cardiovascular death. This background provides the rationale for exploring the potential therapeutic role for HO system in the amelioration of vascular inflammation and prevention of adverse cardiovascular outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Myeong Kim
- Vascular System Research Center and Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, South Korea
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Aki K, Shimizu A, Masuda Y, Kuwahara N, Arai T, Ishikawa A, Fujita E, Mii A, Natori Y, Fukunaga Y, Fukuda Y. ANG II receptor blockade enhances anti-inflammatory macrophages in anti-glomerular basement membrane glomerulonephritis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2010; 298:F870-82. [PMID: 20071465 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00374.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are heterogeneous immune cell populations that include classically activated and alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. We examined the anti-inflammatory effect of ANG II type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) blocker (ARB) on glomerular inflammation in a rat model of anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) glomerulonephritis (GN). The study focused on infiltrating CD8(+) and CD4(+) cells and macrophages, as well as the heterogeneity of intraglomerular macrophages. Wistar-Kyoto rats were treated with high-dose olmesartan (3 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)), low-dose olmesartan (0.3 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)), or vehicle (control) 7 days before induction of anti-GBM GN. Control rats showed mainly CD8(+) cells and ED1(+) macrophages, with a few CD4(+) cells infiltrating the glomeruli. Necrotizing and crescentic glomerular lesions developed by day 7 with the increase of proteinuria. AT(1)R was expressed on CD8(+) and CD4(+) cells and on ED1(+) macrophages. Low-dose ARB had no anti-inflammatory effects in anti-GBM GN. However, high-dose ARB reduced glomerular infiltration of CD8(+) cells and ED1(+) macrophages and suppressed necrotizing and crescentic lesions by days 5 to 7 (P < 0.05). In addition, high-dose ARB reduced the numbers of ED3(+)-activated macrophages, suppressed glomerular TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma production, and downregulated M1-related chemokine and cytokines (monocyte chemoattractant protein type 1, IL-6, and IL-12). High-dose ARB also enhanced ED2(+) M2 macrophages by day 7 with upregulation of glomerular IL-4 and IL-13 and augmented CCL17, IL-1 receptor antagonist, and IL-10. We concluded that high-dose ARB inhibits glomerular inflammation by increasing the numbers of M2 macrophages and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines and by suppressing M1 macrophage development with downregulation of M1-related proinflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaoru Aki
- Departmentsof Analytic Human Pathology, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Matsumoto K, Fukuda N, Abe M, Fujita T. Dendritic cells and macrophages in kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol 2009; 14:1-11. [PMID: 19688180 DOI: 10.1007/s10157-009-0218-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Matsumoto
- Division of Nephrology, Hypertension and Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, 30-1 Oyaguchi-Kami-Machi, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo, 173-8610, Japan.
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Luo DD, Fielding C, Phillips A, Fraser D. Interleukin-1 beta regulates proximal tubular cell transforming growth factor beta-1 signalling. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24:2655-65. [PMID: 19420104 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfp208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF beta) expression in the kidney is central not only to the pathogenesis of tubulointerstitial fibrosis but also in repair following acute injury. Recent work suggests that pro-inflammatory cytokines may determine epithelial cell responses to TGF beta in the contexts of acute injury and chronic wounding. METHODS In this study, we examined the effects of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1) on proximal tubular cell (PTC) response to TGF beta. RESULTS IL-1 induced the rapid activation of NF-kappaB in PTC. This was associated with inhibition of Smad2 and Smad3 signalling. NF-kappaB activation by IL-1 was transient, with a change from p65/p50 heterodimer to p50/p50 homodimer formation by 24 h and a switch to enhanced Smad signalling response to TGF beta. This was associated with IL-6 generation and prevented by IL-6 receptor blockade. CONCLUSION In summary, IL-1 has a biphasic effect on PTC TGF beta signalling, with early NF-kappaB-mediated inhibition and delayed sensitization via an autocrine IL-6 loop. These results provide mechanistic insight into how acute and chronic inflammation help define epithelial cell response to TGF beta, and hence how TGF beta can have apparently contradictory roles, being involved in controlled healing following acute injury on one hand, yet the principal promoter of scarring in chronic disease on the other.
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Grenier N, Hauger O, Eker O, Combe C, Couillaud F, Moonen C. Molecular magnetic resonance imaging of the genitourinary tract: recent results and future directions. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2008; 16:627-41, viii. [PMID: 18926427 DOI: 10.1016/j.mric.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This article focuses on preclinical and early clinical applications of renal cell MR imaging, on new developments in MR control of intrarenal gene therapy, and on several potential applications of molecular imaging techniques, mainly targeting cell receptors and enzyme activity, which could find exciting applications within the genitourinary tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Grenier
- UMR-CNRS 5231 Imagerie Moléculaire et Fonctionnelle, Université Victor Segalen-Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux-Cedex, France.
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Abstract
Chronic kidney disease is characterized by progressive interstitial fibrosis, reduced blood flow, and tubular atrophy, which present a common pathway of destruction irrespective of the initial underlying pathology. There is comprehensive evidence that the interactions of infiltrating macrophages with resident tissue cells play a critical role in this process. A new study now describes the correlation between macrophages, capillary density, and interstitial scarring and suggests distinct differences in early and advanced renal disease.
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Hauger O, Grenier N, Deminère C, Lasseur C, Delmas Y, Merville P, Combe C. USPIO-enhanced MR imaging of macrophage infiltration in native and transplanted kidneys: initial results in humans. Eur Radiol 2007; 17:2898-907. [PMID: 17929025 DOI: 10.1007/s00330-007-0660-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2006] [Revised: 03/22/2007] [Accepted: 04/03/2007] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the detection and characterization of macrophage infiltration in native and transplanted kidneys using ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (USPIO). Among 21 patients initially enrolled, 12 scheduled for renal biopsy for acute or rapidly progressive renal failure (n = 7) or renal graft rejection (n = 5) completed the study. Three magnetic resonance (MR) sessions were performed with a 1.5-T system, before, immediately after and 72 h after i.v. injection of USPIO at doses of 1.7-2.6 mg of iron/kg. Signal intensity change was evaluated visually and calculated based on a region of interest (ROI) positioned on the kidney compartments. Histological examination showed cortical macrophage infiltration in four patients (>5 macrophages/mm(2)), two in native kidneys (proliferative extracapillary glomerulonephritis) and two in transplants (acute rejection). These patients showed a 33 +/- 18% mean cortical signal loss on T2*-weighted images. In the remaining eight patients, with <5 macrophages/mm(2), there was no cortical signal loss. However, in three of these, presenting with ischemic acute tubular necrosis, a strong (42 +/- 18%) signal drop was found in the medulla exclusively. USPIO-enhanced MR imaging can demonstrate infiltration of the kidneys by macrophages both in native and transplanted kidneys and may help to differentiate between kidney diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Hauger
- Service d'Imagerie Diagnostique et Thérapeutique de l'Adulte, Groupe Hospitalier Pellegrin, Place Amélie Raba-Léon, 33076, Bordeaux Cedex, France.
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Gueler F, Park JK, Rong S, Kirsch T, Lindschau C, Zheng W, Elger M, Fiebeler A, Fliser D, Luft FC, Haller H. Statins attenuate ischemia-reperfusion injury by inducing heme oxygenase-1 in infiltrating macrophages. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 170:1192-9. [PMID: 17392159 PMCID: PMC1829453 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Statins induce heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in several cell types, such as vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and macrophages. The present study assessed the role of statin-induced HO-1 up-regulation on circulating monocytes/macrophages and their contribution in preventing renal ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury in a rat model. Cerivastatin was administered via gavage (0.5 mg/kg) for 3 days before IR injury; controls received vehicle. Statin pretreatment reduced renal damage and attenuated renal dysfunction (P < 0.05) after IR injury. The protective statin pretreatment effect was completely abolished by cotreatment with tin protoporphyrin IX (Sn-PP), a competitive HO inhibitor. IR increased HO-1 expression at the transcript and protein level in renal tissue. This effect was significantly more evident (P < 0.05) in the statin-pretreated animals 24 hours after IR injury. We identified infiltrating macrophages as the major source of tissue HO-1 production. Moreover, in ancillary cell culture (monocyte cell line) and in in vivo experiments (isolation of circulating monocytes), we confirmed that statins regulate HO-1 expression in these cells. We conclude that statin treatment up-regulates HO-1 in circulating monocytes/macrophages in vivo and in vitro. We hypothesize that local delivery of HO-1 from infiltrating macrophages exerts anti-inflammatory effects after IR injury and thereby may reduce tissue destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faikah Gueler
- Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
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Yu C, Gong R, Rifai A, Tolbert EM, Dworkin LD. Long-term, high-dosage candesartan suppresses inflammation and injury in chronic kidney disease: nonhemodynamic renal protection. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18:750-9. [PMID: 17287430 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2006070770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that higher-than-usual antihypertensive dosages of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockers may provide additional protection from progression of chronic renal disease; however, there have been few long-term studies, and the underlying mechanisms remain uncertain. This study examined the effects of long-term (14 mo) administration of ultrahigh dosages of the angiotensin receptor blocker candesartan on the progression of renal injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Beginning 8 wk after birth, SHR underwent unilateral nephrectomy and were given vehicle (control), or candesartan at a standard 5 mg/kg per d (T5), high 25 mg/kg per d (T25), or ultrahigh 75 mg/kg per d dosage (T75). After 2 wk, BP was reduced in all treated groups; however, it was better controlled in the high-dosage groups (T25 and T75). Urinary protein was significantly reduced in T75 after 2 wk of treatment and was also declined in the other two treatment groups but only after 2 mo. Exogenous angiotensin II test showed that complete angiotensin receptor blockade was achieved only in the high-dosage groups. Renal inflammation and macrophage (ED-1) infiltration were significantly ameliorated in both T25 and T75 but not in T5 rats. This was associated with the changes of tubular expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, RANTES (regulated upon expression normal T cell expressed and secreted), and the phosphorylated NF-kappaB, a marker for activation. Suppression of ED-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and RANTES expression and NF-kappaB activation were greater in T75 as compared with T25. These findings suggest that candesartan has dosage-dependent, anti-inflammatory effects that are mediated by suppression of NF-kappaB activation and chemokine expression. Renal protection with high-dosage therapy may depend on these nonhemodynamic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Yu
- Division of Renal Disease, Rhode Island Hospital, 593 Eddy Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
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13
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Contrast agents for functional and cellular MRI of the kidney. Eur J Radiol 2006; 60:341-52. [PMID: 16973326 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2006.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2006] [Revised: 06/11/2006] [Accepted: 06/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Low-molecular-weight gadolinium (Gd) chelates are glomerular tracers but their role in evaluation of renal function with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is still marginal. Because of their small size, they diffuse freely into the interstitium and the relationship between measured signal intensity and concentration is complex. New categories of contrast agents, such as large Gd-chelates or iron oxide particules, with different pharmacokinetic and magnetic properties have been developed. These large molecules could be useful for both functional (quantification of perfusion, quantification of glomerular filtration rate, estimation of tubular function) and cellular imaging (intrarenal phagocytosis in inflammatory renal diseases). Continuous development of new contrast agents remains worthwhile to get the best adequacy between the physiological phenomenon of interest and the pharmacokinetic of the agent.
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Abstract
Significant technical improvements have allowed the use of radiological techniques to play a growing role in the imaging of renal diseases. Noninvasive ultrasound methods (ie, sonography and Doppler) are now positioned as first-line methods for the evaluation of renovascular diseases. Multidetector computed tomography is able to provide high spatial resolution images of the kidneys and renal arterial vessels. Magnetic resonance imaging, which provides higher signal-to-noise ratio and higher spatial and/or temporal resolution, can display both morphological information about renal parenchyma and vessels and functional data, including perfusion, filtration, diffusion, or oxygenation. In renovascular diseases, these techniques have the potential to drive new strategies, including Doppler sonography as a first-line method, followed by computed tomography angiography or magnetic resonance angiography, depending mainly on renal function. Imaging of parenchymal renal diseases is developing toward more quantitative (volumetric and functional measurements) and more specific (through in vivo cell targeting) acquisitions for obtaining the adequate information on tissue characteristics relevant either for diagnosis or for prognosis or treatment follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Grenier
- Service d'Imagerie Diagnostique et Interventionnelle de l'Adulte, Groupe Hospitalier Pellegrin, and ERT CNRS Imagerie Moléculaire et Fonctionnelle, Université Victor Segalen-Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France.
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15
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Abstract
Acute and chronic nephropathies are responsible for morphologic and functional renal changes. However, radiologic techniques currently play a minor role in imaging of parenchymal nephropathies in native or transplanted kidneys. From a morphologic point of view, three-dimensional magnetic resonance (MR) volumetric biomarkers of kidney function, such as renal and cortical volumes or cystic volume, in polycystic kidney diseases play a growing role in nephrologic practice. From a functional point of view, if scintigraphic techniques remain the major sources of renal performance assessment, new MR imaging systems and specific MR contrast agents may soon provide significant developments in the evaluation of renal performance (glomerular filtration rate measurement), in the search for prognostic factors (hypoxia, inflammation, cell viability, degree of tubular function, and interstitial fibrosis), and for monitoring new cell therapies. New developments that have provided higher signal-to-noise ratio and higher spatial and/or temporal resolutions have the potential to direct new opportunities for obtaining morphologic and functional information on tissue characteristics that are relevant for various renal diseases with respect to diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Grenier
- ERT CNRS Imagerie Moléculaire et Fonctionnelle, Université Victor Segalen, Bordeaux 2, France.
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Ferguson MWJ, O'Kane S. Scar-free healing: from embryonic mechanisms to adult therapeutic intervention. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2004; 359:839-50. [PMID: 15293811 PMCID: PMC1693363 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2004.1475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 526] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In man and domestic animals, scarring in the skin after trauma, surgery, burn or sports injury is a major medical problem, often resulting in adverse aesthetics, loss of function, restriction of tissue movement and/or growth and adverse psychological effects. Current treatments are empirical, unreliable and unpredictable: there are no prescription drugs for the prevention or treatment of dermal scarring. Skin wounds on early mammalian embryos heal perfectly with no scars whereas wounds to adult mammals scar. We investigated the cellular and molecular differences between scar-free healing in embryonic wounds and scar-forming healing in adult wounds. Important differences include the inflammatory response, which in embryonic wounds consists of lower numbers of less differentiated inflammatory cells. This, together with high levels of morphogenetic molecules involved in skin growth and morphogenesis, means that the growth factor profile in a healing embryonic wound is very different from that in an adult wound. Thus, embryonic wounds that heal without a scar have low levels of TGFbeta1 and TGFbeta2, low levels of platelet-derived growth factor and high levels of TGFbeta3. We have experimentally manipulated healing adult wounds in mice, rats and pigs to mimic the scar-free embryonic profile, e.g. neutralizing PDGF, neutralizing TGFbeta1 and TGFbeta2 or adding exogenous TGFbeta3. These experiments result in scar-free wound healing in the adult. Such experiments have allowed the identification of therapeutic targets to which we have developed novel pharmaceutical molecules, which markedly improve or completely prevent scarring during adult wound healing in experimental animals. Some of these new drugs have successfully completed safety and other studies, such that they have entered human clinical trials with approval from the appropriate regulatory authorities. Initial trials involve application of the drug or placebo in a double-blind randomized design, to experimental incision or punch biopsy wounds under the arms of human volunteers. Based on encouraging results from such human volunteer studies, the lead drugs have now entered human patient-based trials e.g. in skin graft donor sites. We consider the evolutionary context of wound healing, scarring and regeneration. We hypothesize that evolutionary pressures have been exerted on intermediate sized, widespread, dirty wounds with considerable tissue damage e.g. bites, bruises and contusions. Modem wounds (e.g. resulting from trauma or surgery) caused by sharp objects and healing in a clean or sterile environment with close tissue apposition are new occurrences, not previously encountered in nature and to which the evolutionary selected wound healing responses are somewhat inappropriate. We also demonstrate that both repair with scarring and regeneration can occur within the same animal, including man, and indeed within the same tissue, thereby suggesting that they share similar mechanisms and regulators. Consequently, by subtly altering the ratio of growth factors present during adult wound healing, we can induce adult wounds to heal perfectly with no scars, with accelerated healing and with no adverse effects, e.g. on wound strength or wound infection rates. This means that scarring may no longer be an inevitable consequence of modem injury or surgery and that a completely new pharmaceutical approach to the prevention of human scarring is now possible. Scarring after injury occurs in many tissues in addition to the skin. Thus scar-improving drugs could have widespread benefits and prevent complications in several tissues, e.g. prevention of blindness after scarring due to eye injury, facilitation of neuronal reconnections in the central and peripheral nervous system by the elimination of glial scarring, restitution of normal gut and reproductive function by preventing strictures and adhesions after injury to the gastrointestinal or reproductive systems, and restoration of locomotor function by preventing scarring in tendons and ligaments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W J Ferguson
- UK Centre for Tissue Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, 3.239 Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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Lin SK, Kok SH, Yeh FTC, Kuo MYP, Lin CC, Wang CC, Goldring SR, Hong CY. MEK/ERK and signal transducer and activator of transcription signaling pathways modulate oncostatin M-stimulated CCL2 expression in human osteoblasts through a common transcription factor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 50:785-93. [PMID: 15022320 DOI: 10.1002/art.20058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyze the effects of oncostatin M (OSM), a gp130-type cytokine, on CCL2 expression in MG-63 cells, a human osteosarcoma cell line with a characteristic osteoblastic phenotype, and to investigate the signaling pathway involved. METHODS The expression of messenger RNA (mRNA) for CCL2 and c-Fos was analyzed by Northern blotting. Amounts of CCL2 released into the supernatant were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Western blotting was used to examine the activation of MAPK signaling pathways. Interactions between activator protein 1 (AP-1) and DNA were evaluated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. RESULTS OSM stimulated CCL2 expression at both the mRNA and the protein levels. Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) was also induced by OSM. However, the up-regulation of CCL2 mRNA was COX-2-independent but required tyrosine kinase and protein kinase C (PKC). OSM stimulated the phosphorylation of MEK-1/2 and ERK-1/2 but not p38 and JNK. A transient elevation of c-Fos mRNA was induced by OSM, but PD 98059 (MEK inhibitor), fludarabine (signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 [STAT-1] inhibitor), and piceatannol (STAT-3 and STAT-5 inhibitor) abolished this effect. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay revealed that OSM stimulated AP-1-DNA binding, which was also abolished by PD 98059, fludarabine, and piceatannol. Supershift study further confirmed the role of c-Fos in the above interaction. PD 98059, fludarabine, piceatannol, and curcumin (AP-1 inhibitor) inhibited the OSM-induced expression of CCL2. CONCLUSION OSM induces CCL-2 expression in osteoblasts. Activation of the MEK/ERK and STAT pathways, which leads to c-Fos expression and AP-1-DNA binding, is involved in the process. The signaling requires tyrosine kinase and PKC but not COX-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sze-Kwan Lin
- National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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Minto AWM, Erwig LP, Rees AJ. Heterogeneity of macrophage activation in anti-Thy-1.1 nephritis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2003; 163:2033-41. [PMID: 14578202 PMCID: PMC1892406 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63561-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages infiltrating glomeruli in telescoped nephrotoxic nephritis are programmed. The purpose of this study was to assess whether macrophages infiltrating glomeruli of rats with passively induced injury become similarly programmed, and to determine whether macrophage commitment is an early event. Glomerular macrophages isolated from rats with resolving and proliferative anti-Thy-1 nephritis were examined for nitric oxide (NO) generation and expression of lysosomal hydrolases. After a single injection of Thy-1 antibody the cells generated large amounts of NO that was attenuated ex vivo by transforming growth factor-beta and other anti-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast macrophages infiltrating glomeruli immediately after a second injection of Thy-1 antibody generated NO spontaneously and were unresponsive to alternative activation. beta-Glucuronidase expression was used as a second independent assay for macrophage activation and the results confirmed the observations made for NO. Furthermore, macrophages infiltrating the glomerulus after the second antibody injection exhibited a striking dichotomy in that 70% of the cells behave as programmed by interferon-gamma and 30% by transforming growth factor-beta. The results show that macrophage commitment occurs very early after monocyte migration and that infiltration itself does not invariably induce macrophage programming. It demonstrates that macrophages infiltrating inflamed glomeruli at the same time do not respond uniformly, but are capable of engaging different activation programs. This emphasizes the critical importance of the underlying disease process for macrophage functional development in an inflamed environment.
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Frosch M, Vogl T, Waldherr R, Sorg C, Sunderkötter C, Roth J. Expression of MRP8 and MRP14 by macrophages is a marker for severe forms of glomerulonephritis. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 75:198-206. [PMID: 14597726 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0203076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of two S100 proteins, myeloid related protein (MRP)8 and MRP14, as well as their complex formation indicate proinflammatory properties of macrophages. We analyzed if the different forms of glomerulonephritis (GN) are associated with the appearance of certain phenotypes of infiltrating macrophages characterized by expression of MRP8 and MRP14 as well as their complex formation. Immunohistochemical analysis of 89 renal biopsies with different forms of nephritis revealed that expression and complex formation of MRP8 and MRP14 by infiltrating macrophages in the glomeruli correlated with the severity of the inflammatory process. As such, MRP8/MRP14-expressing monocytes prevailed in highly proliferating forms of GN, i.e., systemic lupus erythematosus GN and extracapillary GN. In contrast, a high percentage of macrophages in the renal interstitium expressed MRP8 and MRP14 without concomitant formation of their complex, and they indicated a chronic type of inflammatory reaction in GN. Immunosuppressive drugs had no direct effects on the expression of MRP8 and MRP14 in macrophages in vitro. The correlation of MRP8 and MRP14 expression with disease activity indicates that these calcium-binding proteins are of pathophysiological relevance in GN. In addition, our findings reflect differences in the inflammatory mechanisms underlying the various forms of GN, as they revealed that distinct macrophage subpopulations prevail in the different forms of GN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Frosch
- Institute of Experimental Dermatology, University of Münster, Röntgenstr. 21, D-48149, Münster, Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles D Pusey
- Hammersmith Hospital and Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy W Meyer
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System and Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.
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Haberstroh U, Pocock J, Gómez-Guerrero C, Helmchen U, Hamann A, Gutierrez-Ramos JC, Stahl RAK, Thaiss F. Expression of the chemokines MCP-1/CCL2 and RANTES/CCL5 is differentially regulated by infiltrating inflammatory cells. Kidney Int 2002; 62:1264-76. [PMID: 12234296 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2002.kid572.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemokines are involved in the regulation of the cellular renal infiltrate in glomerulonephritis; however, it is unclear to which degree resident glomerular cells or infiltrating leukocytes contribute to the formation of chemokines in glomerular inflammatory lesions. We therefore examined whether monocytes/macrophages play a role in the expression of the C-C chemokines MCP-1/CCL2 and RANTES/CCL5 in renal tissue in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced model of inflammation, where previously we have shown increased glomerular RANTES expression and glomerular infiltration of ED-1-positive cells. METHODS Inflammatory lesions were induced by an intraperitoneal injection of LPS. The infiltration of monocytes into the glomerulus was reduced by two experimental approaches. First, rats were depleted of monocytes by the use of specific monocyte-antisera or by cytotoxic drugs. Second, the infiltration of monocytes into the kidney was reduced by using intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) knockout mice. RESULTS Both experimental approaches demonstrated a significant reduction in the number of infiltrating monocytes/macrophages after lipopolysaccharide injection. This reduction in the infiltration of inflammatory cells was associated with significantly reduced RANTES/CCL5 mRNA expression. However, MCP-1/CCL2 mRNA expression was not inhibited after the LPS injection by monocyte/macrophage depletion. Also, the increase in nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) binding activity after the LPS injection was not reduced in pretreated animals. The experiments therefore demonstrate that infiltrating monocytes/macrophages contribute to increased RANTES/CCL5 mRNA expression in inflammatory renal lesions, whereas MCP-1/CCL2 mRNA expression and NF-kappaB activation were not reduced by monocyte/macrophage depletion. CONCLUSION MCP-1/CCL2 released from renal tissue upon stimulation plays a major role in the regulation of monocyte/macrophage infiltration, which contributes significantly to increased renal RANTES/CCL5 expression. This cross-talk between resident renal cells and monocytes/macrophages is therefore likely to boost the number of infiltrating inflammatory cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Haberstroh
- Division of Nephrology and Osteology, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Hamburg 20246, Germany
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Wen M, Segerer S, Dantas M, Brown PA, Hudkins KL, Goodpaster T, Kirk E, LeBoeuf RC, Alpers CE. Renal injury in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Transl Med 2002; 82:999-1006. [PMID: 12177238 DOI: 10.1097/01.lab.0000022222.03120.d4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyperlipidemia is thought to accelerate the progression of renal diseases, but the mechanisms by which hyperlipidemia exerts its deleterious effect is still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to describe the renal pathology in a hyperlipidemic mouse strain, the apolipoprotein E-deficient mice (apoE-/-). Renal specimens from a total of 34 mice were studied, including 19 apoE-/- females at the age of 36 weeks, 9 apoE-/- females at the age of 24 weeks, and 6 wild-type females (C57BL/6) as controls. Kidneys were evaluated by histologic examination, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect MAC-2-expressing monocyte/macrophages, and the proliferation marker PCNA. Glomerular cell number, glomerular matrix area, and glomerular area were quantified by morphometry. Glomerular lesions in apoE-/- mice were characterized by macrophage accumulation, commonly with foam cell appearance, deposition of extracellular matrix, glomerular hyperplasia, and at times prominent mesangiolysis associated with capillary microaneurysms. Some cases demonstrated lipid deposits filling glomerular capillaries. Arterioles of the vascular pole demonstrated a "foamy" degeneration of smooth muscle cells. These lesions related to hyperlipidemia in this well-established mouse strain have not been previously described. Because this mouse strain is among the most widely studied for interventions aimed at altering hyperlipidemia and the progression of atherosclerosis, we believe that our observations may be of major importance for the accurate interpretation of interventional studies in this strain and offer a new opportunity to study mechanisms of hyperlipidemic renal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wen
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Abstract
Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease is a form of autoimmune glomerulonephritis often accompanied by lung haemorrhage. It is characterized by circulating and deposited antibodies that bind basement membrane components in the glomerulus and lung alveolus. Since early descriptions of the deposition of immunoglobulin on the glomerular basement membrane, work has focused on the binding properties of the autoantibodies, and this has led to the identification of the autoantigen as the non-collagenous region of the alpha 3 chain of type IV collagen. Despite being thought of as a prototypic antibody mediated autoimmune disease, it is becoming apparent that both humoral and cellular immune mechanisms act in concert to initiate and perpetuate disease. Recent data have shed light on the molecular pathogenesis of anti-glomerular basement membrane disease and provided a more complete framework on which to build our understanding of autoimmune renal disease. This should lead to novel approaches to immunotherapy for patients with glomerulonephritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan D Salama
- Renal Section, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK.
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