Catheter-induced vasospasm in the treatment of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding by pharmaco-induced vasospasm embolization therapy

BACKGROUND

To report the clinical outcomes of vasospasm embolization technique in treating lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB).

METHODS

Fifty LGIB patients (32 men and 18 women; mean age, 70.4 years) with positive contrast extravasation on multidetector computed tomography were treated with pharmaco-induced vasospasm embolization by semiselective catheterization technique. Distal rectal bleeding was excluded. The bleedings in three patients were considered to be tumor related. Eighteen underwent regular hemodialysis, and 22 showed unstable hemodynamic at intervention.

RESULTS

Forty-two bleeders were found in superior mesenteric territory and eight in the inferior mesenteric territory. Successful, immediate hemostasis was achieved in 49 (98%) patients. Early recurrent bleeding (<30 days) was found in 13 (26.5%) patients with 6 local rebleeding (12.2%), 5 new-foci bleeding (10.2%), and 2 uncertain foci bleeding (4.1%). Repeated vasospasm embolization therapy was given to five patients, with successful hemostasis in four. All the three tumor-related bleeding patients undergoing vasospasm embolization had ceased bleeding and discharged. Patient-based primary and overall clinical successes were achieved in 73.5% and 83.7%, and lesion-based primary and overall clinical successes were 83.0% and 86.7%, respectively. The 30-day mortality rate was 21.3%, and the 1- and 2-year survival rates were 51.5% and 43.8%. No major procedure-related complications (eg, bowel ischemia) were encountered.

CONCLUSION

This study confirmed our prior preliminary conclusion that pharmaco-induced vasospasm embolization is easy, safe, and effective for LGIB. This treatment may be considered the first-line alternative approach for LGIB, especially for patients of advanced age with complex medical problems and/or when vasa rectal embolization isn't feasible.

Fatal arterial hemorrhage after pancreaticoduodenectomy: How do we simultaneously accomplish complete hemostasis and hepatic arterial flow?

BACKGROUND

Although arterial hemorrhage after pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) is not frequent, it is fatal. Arterial hemorrhage is caused by pseudoaneurysm rupture, and the gastroduodenal artery stump and hepatic artery (HA) are frequent culprit vessels. Diagnostic procedures and imaging modalities are associated with certain difficulties. Simultaneous accomplishment of complete hemostasis and HA flow preservation is difficult after PD. Although complete hemostasis may be obtained by endovascular treatment (EVT) or surgery, liver infarction caused by hepatic ischemia and/or liver abscesses caused by biliary ischemia may occur. We herein discuss therapeutic options for fatal arterial hemorrhage after PD.

AIM

To present our data here along with a discussion of therapeutic strategies for fatal arterial hemorrhage after PD.

METHODS

We retrospectively investigated 16 patients who developed arterial hemorrhage after PD. The patients’ clinical characteristics, diagnostic procedures, actual treatments [transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE), stent-graft placement, or surgery], clinical courses, and outcomes were evaluated.

RESULTS

The frequency of arterial hemorrhage after PD was 5.5%. Pancreatic leakage was observed in 12 patients. The onset of hemorrhage occurred at a median of 18 d after PD. Sentinel bleeding was observed in five patients. The initial EVT procedures were stent-graft placement in seven patients, TAE in six patients, and combined therapy in two patients. The rate of technical success of the initial EVT was 75.0%, and additional EVTs were performed in four patients. Surgical approaches including arterioportal shunting were performed in eight patients. Liver infarction was observed in two patients after TAE. Two patients showed a poor outcome even after successful EVT. These four patients with poor clinical courses and outcomes had a poor clinical condition before EVT. Fourteen patients were successfully treated.

CONCLUSION

Transcatheter placement of a covered stent may be useful for simultaneous accomplishment of complete hemostasis and HA flow preservation.

Efficacy of emergency transarterial embolization in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: A single-center experience

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) in the treatment of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) and to determine the potential factors that influence treatment outcome.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 38 patients with acute LGIB who were treated by TAE were retrospectively included. There were 24 men and 14 women, with a mean age of 61 years (range: 9-84 years). Patient characteristics, laboratory findings, treatments, causes of bleeding, angiographic findings, and outcomes were reviewed.

RESULTS

Active contrast extravasation was observed in 26/38 patients (68.4%) and was the most frequent angiographic finding, followed by abnormal mucosal staining (8/38; 21.1%) and tumor staining (4/38; 10.5%). Technical success of TAE was obtained in 35/38 patients (92%) whereas technical failure was observed in 3/38 patients (8%). Clinical success rate following TAE was 63%. Bowel ischemia occurred in 5/38 patients (13%) following TAE; mild ischemia without sequelae was observed in 3 patients and severe ischemias with bowel perforation requiring surgery in 2 patients. No variables were identified as significant predictive factors of failed TAE.

CONCLUSION

TAE is a safe and effective treatment to control massive acute LGIB, especially in the emergency setting with a clinical success rate of 63%.

Thrombosis of pancreatic arteriovenous malformation induced by diagnostic angiography: case report

Background

We report on a case of pancreatic arteriovenous malformation (PAVM) that obliterated shortly after diagnostic angiography (DSA). PAVM is a rare anomaly that presents with upper abdominal pain, signs of acute pancreatitis and massive gastrointestinal bleeding. The management of PAVM is rather complex, with complete treatment usually accomplished only by a total extirpation of the affected organ or at least its involved portion. DSA prior to treatment decisions is helpful for characterizing symptomatic PAVM, since it can clearly depict the related vascular networks. In addition, interventional therapy can be performed immediately after diagnosis.

Case presentation

A 39-old male was admitted due to recurring upper abdominal pain that lasted several weeks. Initial examination revealed the absence of fever or jaundice, and the laboratory tests, including that for pancreatic enzymes, were unremarkable. An abdominal ultrasound (US) showed morphological and Doppler anomalies in the pancreas that were consistent with a vascular formation. A subsequent DSA depicted a medium-sized nidus, receiving blood supply from multiple origins but with no dominant artery. Coil embolization was not possible due to the small caliber of the feeding vessels. In addition, sclerotherapy was not performed so as to avoid an unnecessary wash out to the non-targeted duodenum. Consequently, the patient received no specific treatment for his symptomatic PAVM. A large increase in pancreatic enzymes was noticed shortly after the DSA procedure. Imaging follow-up by means of CT and MRI showed small amounts of peripancreatic fluid along with a limited area of intra-parenchymal necrosis, indicating necrotizing pancreatitis. In the post-angiography follow-up the patient was hemodynamically stable the entire time and was treated conservatively. The symptoms of pancreatitis improved over a few days, and the laboratory findings returned to normal ranges. Long-term follow-up by way of a contrast-enhanced CT revealed no recanalization of the thrombosed PAVM.

Conclusion

The factors associated with the obliteration of PAVM during or after DSA are poorly understood. In our case it may be attributed to the low flow dynamics of PAVM, as well as to the local administration of a contrast agent. Asymptomatic PAVM, as diagnosed with non-invasive imaging techniques, should not be evaluated with DSA due to the potential risk of severe complications, such as acute pancreatitis.

Clinical outcomes of endovascularly managed iatrogenic renal hemorrhages

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effectiveness of endovascular management in iatrogenic renal injuries with regard to clinical status on follow-up and requirements for repeat angiography and embolization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective study included patients who were referred for endovascular management of significant hemorrhage following an iatrogenic injury. Data was recorded from the Picture Archiving and Communication system (PACS) and electronic medical records. The site and type of iatrogenic injury, imaging findings, treatment, angiography findings, embolization performed, clinical status on follow-up, and requirement for repeat embolization were recorded. The outcomes were clinical resolution, nephrectomy, or death. Clinical findings were recorded on follow-up visits to the clinic. Statistical analysis was performed using descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

Seventy patients were included in this study between January 2000 and June 2012. A bleeding lesion (a pseudoaneurysm or arteriovenous fistula) was detected during the first angiogram in 55 patients (78.6%) and was selectively embolized. Fifteen required a second angiography as there was no clinical improvement and five required a third angiography. Overall, 66 patients (94.3%) showed complete resolution and 4 patients (5.7%) died. Three patients (4.3%) underwent nephrectomy for clinical stabilization even after embolization. There were no major complications. The two minor complications resolved spontaneously.

CONCLUSIONS

Angiography and embolization is the treatment of choice in iatrogenic renal hemorrhage. Upto 20% of initial angiograms may not reveal the bleed and repeat angiography is required to identify a recurrent or unidentified bleed. The presence of multiple punctate bleeders on angiography suggests an enlarging subcapsular hematoma and requires preoperative embolization and nephrectomy.

Pharmaco-induced vasospasm therapy for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: a preliminary report

PURPOSE

To report a novel technique and preliminary clinical outcomes in managing lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen LGIB patients (11 men and 7 women, mean age: 66.2 years) were treated with artificially induced vasospasm therapy by semi-selective catheterization technique. Epinephrine bolus injection was used to initiate the vascular spasm, and followed by a small dose vasopressin infusion (3-5 units/h) for 3h. The technical success, clinical success, recurrent bleeding and major complications of this study were evaluated and reported.

RESULTS

Sixteen bleeders were in the superior mesenteric artery and 2 in the inferior mesenteric artery. All patients achieved successful immediate hemostasis. Early recurrent bleeding (<30 days) was found in 4 patients with local and new-foci re-bleeding in 2 (11.1%) each. Repeated vasospasm therapy was given to 3 patients, with clinical success in 2. Technical success for the 21 bleeding episodes was 100%. Lesion-based and patient-based primary and overall clinical successes were achieved in 89.4% (17/19) and 77.7% (14/18), and 94.7% (18/19) and 88.8% (16/18), respectively. None of our patients had complications of bowel ischemia or other major procedure-related complications. The one year survival of our patients was 72.2 ± 10.6%.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmaco-induced vasospasm therapy seems to be a safe and effective method to treat LGIB from our small patient-cohort study. Further evaluation with large series study is warranted. Considering the advanced age and complex medical problems of these patients, this treatment may be considered as an alternative approach for interventional radiologists in management of LGIB.

Acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

The annual incidence of lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) is ∼20.5 in 100,000 in the general Western population and results in 1 to 2% of hospital emergencies. When medical management and endoscopic therapy are inadequate in cases of acute LGIB, endovascular intervention can be lifesaving. In these emergent situations it is important for the interventional radiologist to be well versed in the multidisciplinary preangiographic work-up, the angiographic presentations of LGIB, and the endovascular therapeutic options. We describe a case of LGIB managed with endovascular embolization and detail the angiographic techniques used, followed by a detailed discussion of the various treatment approaches to LGIB.

The efficacy and long-term outcome of microcoil embolotherapy for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical efficacy as well as long-term clinical outcomes of superselective microcoil embolization for lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between 1997 and 2009, 26 patients with intended transcatheter embolotherapy for LGIB were retrospectively reviewed. Embolization was performed only when the catheter could be advanced to or distal to the mesenteric border of the bowel. The main purpose of our study was to assess technical success, recurrent bleeding rate and complications. We also evaluated the long-term clinical outcome, including late recurrent LGIB, bowel ischemia and the survival rate.

RESULTS

Twenty-two bleeding sources were in the territory of superior mesenteric artery and four in the inferior mesenteric artery. Technical success was achieved in 22 patients (84.6%). The target vessel of embolization was vasa recta in seventeen patients and marginal artery in the remaining five patients. Early rebleeding occurred in two patients (7.7%) and bowel ischemia in two patients, of whom the embolized points were both at the marginal artery. Delayed recurrent bleeding (> 30 days) occurred in two angiodysplasia patients. Five patients (19.2%) died within the first 30 days of intervention. Long-term follow-up depicted estimated survival rates of 58.2 and 43.1% after one, and five years, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Transcatheter embolotherapy to treat LGIB is effective with low rebleeding and ischemic complications. Considering the advanced age and complex medical problems of these patients, the minimal invasive embolotherapy may be used as both a primary and potentially definitive treatment of LGIB.

Arterial interventions in gastrointestinal bleeding

The diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding are complicated. A multitude of pathologic processes results in GI bleeding, and often, the bleeding is intermittent in nature. Of the available diagnostic tools, angiography has been the gold standard. Management of patients requires a multidisciplinary approach involving gastroenterologists, interventional radiologists, and surgeons. Therapeutic arterial interventions include pharmacologic control with the use of intraarterial vasopressin, embolization with temporary and permanent embolizing materials, and catheter-induced vasospasm.

Complications of embolization

Embolization is a remarkably versatile procedure used in nearly all vascular and nonvascular systems to treat a wide range of pathology. The published literature is rich with studies demonstrating the enormous therapeutic potential offered by embolization procedures, and the possibilities continue to expand with the advent of new embolization agents and techniques. Unfortunately, with this variety and innovation comes a wide spectrum of potential complications, not always easy to classify and summarize, associated with embolization. This article reviews the procedures and associated complications of arterial and venous embolization procedures, organized by vascular distribution.

Angiographically negative acute arterial upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding: incidence, predictive factors, and clinical outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the incidence, predictive factors, and clinical outcomes of angiographically negative acute arterial upper and lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From 2001 to 2008, 143 consecutive patients who underwent an angiography for acute arterial upper or lower GI bleeding were examined.

RESULTS

The angiographies revealed a negative bleeding focus in 75 of 143 (52%) patients. The incidence of an angiographically negative outcome was significantly higher in patients with a stable hemodynamic status (p < 0.001), or in patients with lower GI bleeding (p = 0.032). A follow-up of the 75 patients (range: 0-72 months, mean: 8 +/- 14 months) revealed that 60 of the 75 (80%) patients with a negative bleeding focus underwent conservative management only, and acute bleeding was controlled without rebleeding. Three of the 75 (4%) patients underwent exploratory surgery due to prolonged bleeding; however, no bleeding focus was detected. Rebleeding occurred in 12 of 75 (16%) patients. Of these, six patients experienced massive rebleeding and died of disseminated intravascular coagulation within four to nine hours after the rebleeding episode. Four of the 16 patients underwent a repeat angiography and the two remaining patients underwent a surgical intervention to control the bleeding.

CONCLUSION

Angiographically negative results are relatively common in patients with acute GI bleeding, especially in patients with a stable hemodynamic status or lower GI bleeding. Most patients with a negative bleeding focus have experienced spontaneous resolution of their condition.

Interventional management of lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) arises from a number of sources and is a significant cause of hospitalization and mortality in elderly patients. Whereas most episodes of acute LGIB resolve spontaneously with conservative management, an important subset of patients requires further diagnostic workup and therapeutic intervention. Endovascular techniques such as microcatheter embolization are now recognized as safe, effective methods for controlling LGIB that is refractory to endoscopic intervention. In addition, multidetector CT has shown the ability to identify areas of active bleeding in a non-invasive fashion, enabling more focused intervention. Given the relative strengths and weaknesses of various diagnostic and treatment modalities, a close working relationship between interventional radiologists, gastroenterologists and diagnostic radiologists is necessary for the optimal management of LGIB patients.

Treatment of uterine artery vasospasm with transdermal nitroglycerin ointment during uterine artery embolization

Uterine artery vasospasm can complicate uterine artery embolization (UAE) by prolonging procedure times or even causing treatment failure. Embolization must be delayed until the spasm improves and adequate antegrade flow in the vessel is restored. Vasospasm can also produce a "false endpoint" to the procedure, where stasis of flow in the vessel is falsely attributed to successful embolization but is actually the result of vasospasm, leading to undertreatment or treatment failure. Traditional treatments for uterine artery vasospasm have included transcatheter intra-arterial vasodilators and catheter withdrawal from the vessel, both of which can yield mixed results. We report a case of uterine artery vasospasm during UAE successfully treated with transdermal nitroglycerine ointment.

Use of a Hydrogel-Coated Self-Expandable Coil to Salvage a Failed Transcatheter Embolization of a Mesenteric Hemorrhage

HydroCoil (MicroVention, Aliso Viejo, CA, USA) is a self-expanding detachable coil developed to improve the endovascular occlusion of intracranial aneurysms. The hydrogel polymer covering the microcoil expands to several times its original diameter to enhance thrombosis of the intended vessel. We made use of this new technology to occlude a mesenteric artery pseudoaneurysm that failed superselective embolization with standard microcoils.

Microcatheter embolization of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage: an old idea whose time has come

Early attempts of using embolization for lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage were fraught with complications, most notably ischemic colitis or bowel infarction. Embolotherapy was eventually abandoned in favor of catheter-directed vasoconstriction (i.e., vasopressin infusion). This latter therapy is time and labor intensive. With the advent of microcatheter technology, superselective embolization emerged and is rapidly becoming the endovascular therapy of choice for patients with severe lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage refractory to medical management. Numerous studies on the subject have consistently reported high clinical success with low ischemic complications. This article will review the current status of co-axial microcatheter embolization with an emphasis on the technical aspects of the procedure.