Pachymic acid inhibits the tumorigenicity of gastric cancer cells by the mitochondrial pathway

Glycolysis, the sweet appetite of the tumor microenvironment

Cancer cells display an altered metabolic phenotype, characterised by increased glycolysis and lactate production, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen - a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect. This metabolic reprogramming is a crucial adaptation that enables cancer cells to meet their elevated energy and biosynthetic demands. Importantly, the tumor microenvironment plays a pivotal role in shaping and sustaining this metabolic shift in cancer cells. This review explores the intricate relationship between the tumor microenvironment and the Warburg effect, highlighting how communication within this niche regulates cancer cell metabolism and impacts tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. We discuss the potential of targeting the Warburg effect as a promising therapeutic strategy, with the aim of disrupting the metabolic advantage of cancer cells and enhancing our understanding of this complex interplay within the tumor microenvironment.

A review on antitumor effect of pachymic acid

Poria cocos, also known as Jade Ling and Songbai taro, is a dry fungus core for Wolfiporia cocos, which is parasitic on the roots of pine trees. The ancients called it "medicine of four seasons" because of its extensive effect and ability to be combined with many medicines. Pachymic acid (PA) is one of the main biological compounds of Poria cocos. Research has shown that PA has various pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. PA has recently attracted much attention due to its anticancer properties. Researchers have found that PA showed anticancer activity by regulating apoptosis and the cell cycle in vitro and in vivo. Using PA with anticancer drugs, radiotherapy, and biomaterials could also improve the sensitivity of cancer cells and delay the progression of cancer. The purpose of this review was to summarize the anticancer mechanism of PA by referencing the published documents. A review of the collected data indicated that PA had the potential to be developed into an effective anticancer agent.

Matching traditional Chinese medicine and western medicine-based research: Advanced nutraceutical development for proactive gastric cancer prevention

Gastric cancer (GC), the third leading cause of cancer-related death globally, is complex and heterogeneous. This review explores multidisciplinary investigations of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) combined with Western medical practices, emphasizing the development of nutraceuticals for cancer prevention. Using advanced analytical chemistry and food chemistry techniques, this study investigated how TCM components may be optimized for nutraceutical development. Focusing on molecular interactions with GC pathways, particularly the NF-κB, PI3K/Akt, and Wnt/β-catenin pathways, we examined the effects of TCM polyherbal formulas, extracts, and isolated compounds. These agents modulate apoptosis and cellular proliferation, underscoring their potential in preventive strategies. The convergence of nutraceutical and medicine food homology studies highlights a significant shift towards integrating TCM-derived compounds in a preventive health framework. This approach aims not only to enhance efficacy and reduce side effects but also to champion a preventive paradigm using personalized medicine to advance proactive health maintenance and disease prevention. The combination of TCM and western medical practices offers promising avenues for future research and practical applications in GC prevention.

Insights into the inhibition of stomach cancer MKN45 cell growth by Poria cocos ethanol-soluble extract based on MAPK/PI3K signaling pathways and components cell fishing

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Poria cocos F.A. Wolf is an edible fungus with forming sclerotia, which has the effects of promoting diuresis, exuding dampness, invigorating the spleen, and regulating the stomach. P. cocos has a high application in the clinic of traditional Chinese medicine, and some studies have indicated that P. cocos has a good effect on tumor diseases. According to ancient records and modern studies, P. cocos wine offers beneficial effects in terms of strengthening tendons and bones and anti-tumor effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To understand the substance composition of P. cocos ethanol-soluble extract (PESE) and then further study the effect and potential mechanism of PESE components on gastric cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro and in vivo experiments were performed to detect the cell activity and apoptotic condition. Differential expression analysis and pathway enrichment were performed based on transcriptomics and were verified by real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The mice of the stomach cancer tumor model were randomly categorized into three groups. The weight and tumor volume of the mice were measured, and the pathological characteristics of tumor tissue and immunohistochemical changes were determined. Then, the main active components of PESE were detected by MKN45 cell fishing.

RESULTS

In vitro experiments showed that PESE inhibited the proliferation of MKN45 cells, but it did not induce apoptosis. Based on the transcriptome and western blotting results, the inhibition of MKN45 proliferation by PESE may be influenced by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase-protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathways. In vivo experiments showed that PESE inhibited tumor growth in mice and caused partial necrosis of tumor cells but had no toxic effect on mice. Cell fishing identified nine triterpenoids of P. cocos as the major active components of PESE.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that PESE has a significant inhibitory effect on stomach cancer, and its mechanism probably commonly affects the MAPK and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, which could be due to the triterpenoid components.

Mechanism of pachymic acid in the treatment of gastric cancer based on network pharmacology and experimental verification

BACKGROUND

Pachymic acid (PA) is derived from Poria cocos. PA has a variety of pharmacological and inhibitory effects on various tumors. However, the mechanism of action of PA in gastric cancer (GC) remains unclear.

AIM

To investigate the mechanism of PA in treating GC via the combination of network pharmacology and experimental verification.

METHODS

The GeneCards and OMIM databases were used to derive the GC targets, while the Pharm Mapper database provided the PA targets. Utilizing the STRING database, a protein-protein interaction network was constructed and core targets were screened. The analyses of Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and gene set enrichment analysis were conducted, and molecular docking and clinical correlation analyses were performed on the core targets. Ultimately, the network pharmacology findings were validated through in vitro cell assays, encompassing assessments of cell viability, apoptosis, cell cycle, cloning, and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

According to network pharmacology analysis, the core targets were screened, and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is likely to be the mechanism by which PA effectively treats GC, according to KEGG enrichment analysis. The experimental findings showed that PA could control PI3K/AKT signaling to prevent GC cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and pause the cell cycle.

CONCLUSION

Network pharmacology demonstrated that PA could treat GC by controlling a variety of signaling pathways and acting on a variety of targets. This has also been supported by in vitro cell studies, which serve as benchmarks for further research.

Pachymic acid modulates sirtuin 6 activity to alleviate lipid metabolism disorders

Pachymic acid (Pac), a major bioactive constituent of Poria cocos, is an antioxidant that inhibits triglyceride (TG) accumulation. To the best of our knowledge, the present study investigated for the first time whether Pac activated sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) signaling to alleviate oleic acid (OA)-palmitic acid (PA)-induced lipid metabolism disorders in mouse primary hepatocytes (MPHs). In the present study, MPHs challenged with Pac were used to test the effects of Pac on intracellular lipid metabolism. Molecular docking studies were performed to explore the potential targets of Pac in defending against lipid deposition. MPHs isolated from liver-specific SIRT6-deficient mice were subjected to OA + PA incubation and treated with Pac to determine the function and detailed mechanism. It was revealed that Pac activated SIRT6 by increasing its expression and deacetylase activity. Pa prevented OA + PA-induced lipid deposition in MPHs in a dose-dependent manner. Pac (50 µM) administration significantly reduced TG accumulation and increased fatty acid oxidation rate in OA + PA-incubated MPHs. Meanwhile, as per the results of molecular docking and relative mRNA levels, Pac activated SIRT6 and increased SIRT6 deacetylation levels. Furthermore, SIRT6 deletions in MPHs abolished the protective effects of Pac against OA + PA-induced hepatocyte lipid metabolism disorders. The present study demonstrated that Pac alleviates OA + PA-induced hepatocyte lipid metabolism disorders by activating SIRT6 signaling. Overall, SIRT6 signaling increases oxidative stress burden and promotes hepatocyte lipolysis.

Phytochemicals and mitochondria: Therapeutic allies against gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Mitochondria are the energy factories of cells with the ability to modulate the cell cycle, cellular differentiation, signal transduction, growth, and apoptosis. Existing drugs targeting mitochondria in cancer treatment have disadvantages of drug resistance and side effects. Phytochemicals, which are widely found in plants, are bioactive compounds that could facilitate the development of new drugs for gastric cancer. Studies have shown that some phytochemicals can suppress the development of gastric cancer.

METHODS

We searched for data from PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Web of Science, and Embase databases from initial establishment to December 2021 to review the mechanism by which phytochemicals suppress gastric cancer cell growth by modulating mitochondrial function. Phytochemicals were classified and summarized by their mechanisms of action.

RESULTS

Phytochemicals can interfere with mitochondria through several mechanisms to reach the goal of promoting apoptosis in gastric cancer cells. Some phytochemicals, e.g., daidzein and tetrandrine promoted cytochrome c spillover into the cytoplasm by modulating the members of the B-cell lymphoma-2 protein family and induced apoptotic body activity by activating the caspase protein family. Phytochemicals (e.g., celastrol and shikonin) could promote the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and reduce the mitochondrial membrane potential. Several phytochemicals (e.g., berberine and oleanolic acid) activated mitochondrial apoptotic submission via the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway, thereby triggering apoptosis in gastric cancer cells. Several well-known phytochemicals that target mitochondria, including berberine, ginsenoside, and baicalein, showed the advantages of multiple targets, high efficacy, and fewer side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytochemicals could target the mitochondria in the treatment of gastric cancer, providing potential directions and evidence for clinical translation. Drug discovery focused on phytochemicals has great potential to break barriers in cancer treatment.

Synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of pachymic acid derivatives as potential cytotoxic agents

Pachymic acid, a well-known natural lanostane-type triterpenoid, exhibits various pharmacological properties. In this study, 18 derivatives of pachymic acid were synthesized by modifying their molecular structures and evaluated for their anticancer activity against two human cancer cell lines using the CCK-8 assay. Structure-activity relationship studies according to the in vitro cytotoxicity unexpectedly found one promising derivative A17 (namely tumulosic acid, also found in Poria cocos), which had stronger anti-proliferative activity than the positive drug cisplatin against HepG2 and HSC-2 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 7.36 ± 0.98 and 2.50 ± 0.15 μM, respectively. Further pharmacological analysis demonstrated that A17 induced HSC-2 cell cycle arrest at the S phase, cell apoptosis, and autophagy. Western blotting confirmed the regulatory effects of A17 on cell cycle arrest-, apoptosis-, and autophagy-related proteins expression. In addition, A17 regulated the AKT and AMPK pathways in HSC-2 cells. These results demonstrated that A17 possesses great potential as an anticancer agent.

Graphical Abstract

Pharmacological profiles and therapeutic applications of pachymic acid (Review)

Poria cocos is a saprophytic fungus that grows in diverse species of Pinus. Its sclerotium, called fu-ling or hoelen, has been used in various traditional Chinese medicines and health foods for thousands of years, and in several modern proprietary traditional Chinese medicinal products. It has extensive clinical indications, including sedative, diuretic, and tonic effects. Pachymic acid (PA) is the main lanostane-type triterpenoid in Poria cocos. Evidence suggests that PA has various biological properties such as cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antihyperglycemic, antiviral, antibacterial, sedative-hypnotic, and anti-ischemia/reperfusion activities. Although considerable advancements have been made, some fundamental and intricate issues remain unclear, such as the underlying mechanisms of PA. The present study aimed to summarize the biological properties and therapeutic potential of PA. The biosynthetic, pharmacokinetic, and metabolic pathways of PA, and its underlying mechanisms were also comprehensively summarized.

Rapid Determination of Pachymic Acid Content by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

In this paper, a rapid model for the determination of pachymic acid content in Poria was established by partial least squares (PLS) regression and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR). During the research, a total of 108 batches of Poria samples from different producing regions were used, while their corresponding pachymic acid contents by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were adopted as reference. These samples were divided randomly into calibration sets for model establishment and validation sets for model validation. The test results from the calibration set showed that the best preprocessing method of the NIR spectra model was the standard normal variate (SNV) + second derivatives (SD), and the most suitable number of principal factors was 9. In this model, the coefficient of determination of the calibration set ( $r_c^2$ ) and validation set ( $r_v^2$ ) was 0.915 and 0.917, respectively. Meanwhile, the root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC) and the root mean square error of validation (RMSEP) with the calibration set were 0.051 mg/g and 0.054 mg/g, respectively. These results indicated this model could rapidly and reliably predict the pachymic acid content in Poria and increase the determination efficiency of pachymic acid in Poria. This is conducive to promote the development of industry.

Mechanisms of Core Chinese Herbs against Colorectal Cancer: A Study Based on Data Mining and Network Pharmacology

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is now the second most deadly cancer globally. Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) plays an indispensable role in CRC treatment in China. However, the core herbs (the CHs) in the treatment of CRC and their underlying therapeutic mechanisms remain unclear. This study aims to uncovering the CHs and their mechanisms of action of CRC treatment, applying data mining and network pharmacology approach. First, CHM prescriptions treating CRC were collected from clinical studies from the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and MEDLINE databases, and the CHs were identified through data mining. Then, the bioactive compounds and the corresponding putative targets of the CHs were obtained from three traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) databases. CRC related targets were acquired from three disease databases; the overlapping targets between the CHs and CRC were identified as the therapeutic targets. Subsequently, functional enrichment analysis was performed to elucidate the mechanisms of the CHs on CRC. Moreover, networks were constructed to screen the major bioactive compounds and therapeutic targets. Finally, prognostic values of the major target genes were evaluated by survival analysis, and molecular docking simulation was performed to assess the binding affinity of key targets and major bioactive compounds. It came out that 10 the CHs from 113 prescriptions and 190 bioactive compounds with 118 therapeutic targets were identified. The therapeutic targets were mainly enriched in the biological progress of transcription, apoptosis, and response to cytokine. Various cancer-associated signaling pathways, including microRNAs, TNF, apoptosis, PI3K-Akt, and p53, were involved. Furthermore, 15 major bioactive compounds and five key target genes (VEGFA, CASP3, MYC, CYP1Y1, and NFKB1) with prognostic significance were identified. Additionally, most major bioactive compounds might bind firmly to the key target proteins. This study provided an overview of the anti-CRC mechanisms of the CHs, which might refer to the regulation of apoptosis, transcription, and inflammation.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb

Poria cocos is the dried sclerotium of Wolfiporia cocos (F.A. Wolf) Ryvarden & Gilb., which was the current accepted name and was formerly known as Macrohyporia cocos (Schwein.) I. Johans. & Ryvarden, Pachyma cocos (Schwein.) Fr., Poria cocos F.A. Wolf and Sclerotium cocos Schwein. It is one of the most important crude drugs in traditional Chinese medicine, with a wide range of applications in ameliorating phlegm and edema, relieving nephrosis and chronic gastritis and improving uneasiness of minds. Its extensive pharmacological effects have attracted considerable attention in recent years. However, there is no systematic review focusing on the chemical compounds and pharmacological activities of Poria cocos. Therefore, this review aimed to provide the latest information on the chemical compounds and pharmacological effects of Poria cocos, exploring the therapeutic potential of these compounds. We obtained the information of Poria cocos from electronic databases such as SCI finder, PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, WanFang DATA and Google Scholar. Up to now, two main active ingredients, triterpenes and polysaccharides of Poria cocos, have been identified from Poria cocos. It has been reported that they have pharmacological effects on anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, and liver and kidney protection. The review summarizes the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Poria cocos, which suggest that researchers should focus on the development of new drugs about Poria cocos to make them exert greater therapeutic potential.

In vitro effect of pachymic acid on the activity of Cytochrome P450 enzymes

Pachymic acid is a wildly used traditional Chinese medicine with various pharmacological features. It also exists in many drugs which are wildly used in pediatric.The effect of pachymic acid on the activity of eight major CYP isoforms was investigated in human liver microsomes.The effects of pachymic acid on eight human liver CYP isoforms (i.e. 1A2, 3A4, 2A6, 2E1, 2D6, 2C9, 2C19 and 2C8) were investigated in vitro using human liver microsomes (HLMs), and the enzyme kinetic parameters were calculated.The activity of CP3A4, 2E1, and 2C9 was inhibited by pachymic acid in a concentration-dependent manner with IC₅₀ values of 15.04, 27.95, and 24.22 μM, respectively. Pachymic acid is a non-competitive inhibitor of CYP3A4, with the Ki value of 6.47 μM. While the inhibition of CYP2E1 and 2C9 was performed in a competitive manner, with the Ki value of 11.96 and 10.94 μM, respectively. Moreover, the inhibition of CYP3A4 was in a time-dependent manner with the K_I/K_inact value of 7.77/0.048 min^-1μM^-1.The in vitro inhibitory effect of pachymic acid on the activity of CYP3A4, 2E1, and 2C9 indicated the potential drug-drug interaction with the drugs that metabolized by CYP3A4, 2E1, and 2C9. Further clinical and in vivo studies are needed to evaluate the significance of this interaction.

Analyses of the possible anti-tumor effect of yokukansan

The Kampo medicine yokukansan (YKS) has a wide variety of properties such as anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, and is also thought to regulate tumor suppression. In this study, we investigated the anti-tumor effect of YKS. We used Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC)-bearing mice that were fed food pellets containing YKS and then performed a fecal microbiota analysis, a microarray analysis for microRNAs (miRNAs) and an in vitro anti-tumor assay. The fecal microbiota analysis revealed that treatment with YKS partly reversed changes in the microbiota composition due to LLC implantation. Furthermore, a miRNA array analysis using blood serum showed that treatment with YKS restored the levels of miR-133a-3p/133b-3p, miR-1a-3p and miR-342-3p following LLC implantation to normal levels. A TargetScan analysis revealed that the epidermal growth factor receptor 1 signaling pathway is one of the major target pathways for these miRNAs. Furthermore, treatment with YKS restored the levels of miR-200b-3p and miR-200c-3p, a recognized mediator of cancer progression and controller of emotion, in the hypothalamus of mice bearing LLC. An in vitro assay revealed that a mixture of pachymic acid, saikosaponins a and d and isoliquiritigenin, which are all contained in YKS, exerted direct and additive anti-tumor effects. The present findings constitute novel evidence that YKS may exert an anti-tumor effect by reversing changes in the fecal microbiota and miRNAs circulating in the blood serum and hypothalamus, and the compounds found in YKS could have direct and additive anti-tumor effects.

Pachymic Acid Sensitizes Gastric Cancer Cells to Radiation Therapy by Upregulating Bax through Hypoxia

We have previously shown that pachymic acid (PA) inhibited tumorigenesis of gastric cancer (GC) cells. However, the exact mechanism underlying the radiation response of GC was still elusive. To evaluate the effects of PA treatment on radiation response of GC cell lines both in vitro and in vivo, a colony formation assay and xenograft mouse model were employed. Changes in Bax and HIF1[Formula: see text] expressions were assessed in GC cells following PA treatment. Luciferase reporter and chromatin immune-precipitation assays were carried out to investigate the regulation of Bax through HIF1[Formula: see text]. Stable HIF1[Formula: see text] knockdown was introduced into GC cells to further study the mechanism underlying PA-enhanced response to radiation both in vitro and in vivo. PA greatly enhanced the sensitivity of GC cells to radiation in vitro and in vivo, upregulated Bax expression and inhibited hypoxia. Bax expression was under hypoxia inhibition, and PA increased Bax expression through repressing HIF1[Formula: see text]. Stable HIF1[Formula: see text] overexpression in GC cells abolished the sensitizing effect of PA on GC cells to radiation both in vitro and in vivo. PA functions as a radiation sensitizing compound in GC. PA treatment induces the expression of pro-apoptotic factor Bax by inhibiting hypoxia/HIF1[Formula: see text], supporting the therapeutic potential of PA in radiation therapy against GC.