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Roets M, Brand L, Steyn SF. Increased depressive-like behaviour of postpartum Flinders sensitive and resistant line rats is reversed by a predictable postpartum stressor. Behav Brain Res 2023; 442:114321. [PMID: 36720349 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
During the peripartum period, women are at an increased risk to develop perinatal distress, presenting as symptoms of depression and/or anxiety. Yet, due to practical and ethical restrictions, our understanding of this condition remains limited. Animal studies that focus on the neuropsychiatric mechanisms associated with the postpartum period, often ignore the genetical predisposition factor. We therefore investigated whether pregnancy could alter the bio-behavioural profile of the Flinders sensitive and resistant line rats, and whether these effects are exacerbated by a postpartum stressor. Postpartum dams were compared to nulliparous controls in behavioural tests, analysing depressive- and anxiety-like behaviours. Next, postpartum dams were subjected to a maternal separation and early weaning (MSEW) regimen, with their behaviour and serotonergic and noradrenergic concentrations compared to rats not separated from their pups. Regardless of strain, pregnancy decreased time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze and hippocampal serotonin concentrations. Time spent immobile in the forced swim test was also increased, with a significant effect in the FRL and a strong trend in the FSL rats. MSEW reversed these behaviours in both strains and increased social interaction with a male counterpart in the FSL rats, without influencing hippocampal or cortical serotonin or norepinephrine. Taken together, these results suggest that pregnancy influences postpartum behaviour, in a strain-dependent manner. Contrary to what we expected, MSEW overall decreased depressive- and anxiety-like behaviours, with strain specific differences, indicating that a chronic, predictable stressor may not necessarily adversely affect postpartum behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareli Roets
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Linda Brand
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Stephan F Steyn
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
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2
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The α 2C-adrenoceptor antagonist JP-1302 controls behavioral parameters, tyrosine hydroxylase activity and receptor expression in a rat model of ketamine-induced schizophrenia-like deficits. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2022; 221:173490. [PMID: 36379444 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic disabling disease affecting 1 % of the population. Current antipsychotics have limited efficacy in mitigating the severity of the symptoms of the disease. Therefore, searching for new therapeutic targets is essential. Previous studies have shown that α2C-adrenoceptor antagonists may have antipsychotic and pro-cognitive effects. Therefore, the current study evaluates the behavioral and neurochemical effects of JP-1302, a selective α2C-adrenoceptor antagonist, in a model of schizophrenia-like deficits induced by sub-chronic ketamine (KET) administration. Here, we administered ketamine (25 mg/kg, i.p.) to male and female Wistar rats for eight consecutive days. On the last two days of ketamine administration, rats were pretreated with either JP-1302 (1-3-10 μmol/kg, i.p.), chlorpromazine (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.), or saline, and the behavioral tests were performed. Behaviors related to positive (locomotor activity), negative (social interaction), and cognitive (novel object recognition) symptoms of schizophrenia were assessed. Glutamate, glutamine, GABA levels, and α2C-adrenoceptor expression were measured in the frontal cortex and the hippocampus. Tyrosine hydroxylase immunocytochemical reactivity was also shown in the midbrain regions. Sub-chronic ketamine administration increased locomotor activity and produced robust social interaction and object recognition deficits, and JP-1302 significantly ameliorated ketamine-induced cognitive deficits. Ketamine induced a hyperdopaminergic activity in the striatum, which was reversed by the treatment with JP-1302. Also, the α2C-adrenoceptor expression was higher in the frontal cortex and hippocampus in the ketamine-treated rats. Our findings confirm that α2C-adrenoceptor antagonism may be a potential drug target for treating cognitive disorders related to schizophrenia.
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Wang S, Haikarainen A, Pohjakallio A, Sipilä J, Kaskinoro J, Juhila S, Jalava N, Koskinen M, Vesajoki M, Kumpulainen E, Pystynen J, Koskelainen T, Holm P, Din Belle D. Development of Benzodioxine-heteroarylpiperazines as Highly Potent and Selective α2c Antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2022; 77:129005. [PMID: 36174834 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.129005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Here is reported the design and synthesis of a series of highly potent and selective α2C antagonists using benzodioxine methyl piperazine as a central scaffold by pharmacophoric analysis to improve the pharmacokinetics of suboptimal clinical candidate molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouming Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland.
| | - Anssi Haikarainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Antti Pohjakallio
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Julius Sipilä
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Janne Kaskinoro
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Satu Juhila
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Niina Jalava
- Department of CNS Research, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Tengströminkatu 8, 20360, Turku, Finland
| | - Mikko Koskinen
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Marja Vesajoki
- Department of Biology, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Tengströminkatu 8, 20360, Turku, Finland
| | - Esa Kumpulainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Jarmo Pystynen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Tuula Koskelainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Patrik Holm
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - David Din Belle
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
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4
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Wang S, Haikarainen A, Pohjakallio A, Sipilä J, Kaskinoro J, Juhila S, Jalava N, Koskinen M, Vesajoki M, Kumpulainen E, Pystynen J, Koskelainen T, Holm P, Din Belle D. 2,3-Dihydrobenzo-dioxine piperidine derivatives as potent and selective α2c antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2022; 69:128783. [PMID: 35569686 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.128783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
In this manuscript, we report a series of benzodioxine methyl piperidine derivatives as highly potent and selective α2C antagonists by ligand design to improve the pharmacokinetics of a previous candidate molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouming Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland.
| | - Anssi Haikarainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Antti Pohjakallio
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Julius Sipilä
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Janne Kaskinoro
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Satu Juhila
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Niina Jalava
- Department of CNS Research, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Tengströminkatu 8, 20360, Turku, Finland
| | - Mikko Koskinen
- Department of DMPK & Safety Science, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Marja Vesajoki
- Department of Biology, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Tengströminkatu 8, 20360 Turku, Finland
| | - Esa Kumpulainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Jarmo Pystynen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Tuula Koskelainen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - Patrik Holm
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
| | - David Din Belle
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Orion Corporation Orion Pharma, Orionintie 1, PL 65, FI-02101, Finland
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Gericke J, Lekhooa M, Steyn SF, Viljoen AM, Harvey BH. An acute dose-ranging evaluation of the antidepressant properties of Sceletium tortuosum (Zembrin®) versus escitalopram in the Flinders Sensitive Line rat. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 284:114550. [PMID: 34454055 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E.Br. (ST) has been used by the Khoisan people of South Africa as a mood elevator. Its various pharmacological mechanisms of action suggest distinct potential as an antidepressant. Clinical studies in healthy individuals suggest beneficial effects on mood, cognition, and anxiety. AIM OF THE STUDY To obtain a chromatographic fingerprint of a standardized extract of S. tortuosum (Zembrin®), and to evaluate the acute antidepressant-like properties of Zembrin® versus the reference antidepressant, escitalopram, in the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rat, a genetic rodent model of depression. MATERIALS AND METHODS The chemical profile of Zembrin® was determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) chromatogram method using alkaloid standards. Twelve saline treated FSL and six Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) control rats were used to confirm face validity of the FSL model using the forced swim test (FST). Thereafter, FSL rats (n = 10) received either 5, 10, 25, 50 or 100 mg/kg of Zembrin®, or 5, 10 or 20 mg/kg escitalopram oxalate (ESC), both via oral gavage, and subjected to the open field test (OFT) and FST. RESULTS Four main ST alkaloids were identified and quantified in Zembrin® viz. mesembrenone, mesembrenol, mesembrine, and mesembranol (47.9%, 32%, 13.2%, and 6.8% of the total alkaloids, respectively). FSL rats showed significantly decreased swimming and climbing (coping) behaviours, and significantly increased immobility (despair), versus FRL controls. ESC 5 mg/kg and Zembrin® 25 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg showed significant dose-dependent reversal of immobility in FSL rats and variable effects on coping behaviours. Zembrin® 50 mg/kg was the most effective antidepressant dose, showing equivalence to ESC 5. CONCLUSIONS Zembrin® (25 and 50 mg/kg) and ESC (5 mg/kg) are effective antidepressants after acute treatment in the FST, as assessed in FSL rats. Moreover, Zembrin® 50 mg/kg proved equivalent to ESC 5. Further long-term bio-behavioural studies on the antidepressant properties of Zembrin® are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johané Gericke
- Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Makhotso Lekhooa
- Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Stephan F Steyn
- Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Alvaro M Viljoen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; SAMRC Herbal Drugs Research Unit, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - Brian H Harvey
- Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacen), North West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa; SAMRC Unit on Risk and Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health and Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Fitzgerald PJ. Are Noradrenergic Transmission Reducing Drugs Antidepressants? Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:673634. [PMID: 34658805 PMCID: PMC8514666 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.673634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) remains a significant public health problem worldwide, and revised treatment strategies are therefore urgently needed, including the creation of novel antidepressant compounds or using existing molecular entities in new ways. Etiologic theories of MDD from decades ago have suggested that synaptic deficiencies of monoaminergic neurotransmitters play a causative role in this neuropsychiatric disorder, and that boosting monoamines with drugs such as SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs has antidepressant effects and in some individuals can even induce hypomania or mania. While other factors, such as various intracellular molecular pathways and hippocampal neurogenesis, undoubtedly also play a role in MDD, monoaminergic boosting drugs nonetheless have clearly demonstrated antidepressant properties. There is also, however, a body of studies in the preclinical literature suggesting that monoaminergic transmission reducing drugs, including noradrenergic ones, also have antidepressant-like behavioral properties in rodents. Given that there is increasing evidence that the monoamines have u-shaped or Janus-faced dose-response properties, in which a mid-range value is "optimal" in a variety of behavioral and physiological processes, it is plausible that either too much or too little synaptic norepinephrine in key circuits may exacerbate MDD in some individuals. Here we briefly review rodent depression-related behavioral data, focusing on the forced swim test, from three major classes of noradrenergic transmission reducing drugs (alpha2 agonists, beta blockers, alpha1 antagonists), and find much support for the hypothesis that they have antidepressant-like properties. Whether these drugs are antidepressants in human subjects remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Fitzgerald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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7
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Idazoxan and Efaroxan Potentiate the Endurance Performances and the Antioxidant Activity of Ephedrine in Rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 57:medicina57030194. [PMID: 33668888 PMCID: PMC7996498 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57030194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Background and objectives: The connections between the imidazoline system and multiple other neurotransmitter systems in the brain (adrenergic, dopaminergic, serotoninergic, glutamatergic, opioid) indicate the complexity of the mechanisms underlying motor activity and behavior. The aim of the present research was to investigate the effects of the combination of ephedrine (EPD) and imidazoline antagonists idazoxan (IDZ) and efaroxan (EFR) on the endurance performance in the treadmill test in rats. Materials and Methods: We used Wistar rats distributed as follows: Group 1 (Control) receiving distilled water 0.3 mL/100 g body weight; Group 2 (EPD) receiving 20 mg/kg ephedrine; Group 3 (EPD + IDZ) receiving 20 mg/kg ephedrine + 3 mg/kg idazoxan; Group 4 (EPD + EFR) receiving 20 mg/kg ephedrine + 1 mg/kg efaroxan. An additional group (C) of animals receiving 0.3 mL/100 g body weight distilled water (but not subjected to effort) was used. Endurance capacity was evaluated using a treadmill running PanLAB assay. The evaluation of the substances’ influence on oxidative stress was performed by spectrophotometric determination of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity. Results: Treatment with EPD-IDZ and EPD-EFR were correlated with a longer distance traveled on the belt and with a decrease in the necessary electric shocks to motivate the animal to continue running in the forced locomotion test. Additionally, an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes was found. Conclusions: Idazoxan and efaroxan potentiated the physical effort-related effects of ephedrine with regard to endurance capacity and antioxidant activity in rats.
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Harvey BH, Uys MM, Viljoen FP, Shahid M, Sonntag Q, Meyer LCR. Hippocampal monoamine changes in the Flinders sensitive line rat: A case for the possible use of selective α 2C-AR-antagonists in stress and anxiety disorders in companion animals. Res Vet Sci 2021; 135:175-183. [PMID: 33529845 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Non-selective α2-adrenoreceptor (AR) stimulation delivers favourable sedative, analgesic, muscle relaxant and anxiolytic actions in companion animals, but is associated with cardiovascular and respiratory side effects. Anxiety conditions underscore monoamine disturbances amenable to α2-AR modulation. We investigated sub-chronic (14 day s.c.) treatment with the selective α2C-AR antagonist, ORM-10921 (0.03, 0.1, 0.3 mg/kg/d) on hippocampal noradrenaline (NA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) and their turnover levels in stress sensitive Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rats versus Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) controls, using high performance liquid chromatography. The effects of ORM-10921 were compared to the non-selective α2-AR antagonist, idazoxan (IDAZ; 3 mg/kg/d), and to imipramine (IMI; 15 mg/kg/d), a reference antidepressant in this model. FSL rats displayed significantly reduced 5-HT (p = 0.03) and DA (p = 0.02) levels vs. FRL controls, while NA levels showed a similar trend. ORM-10921 significantly increased NA (all doses p ≤ 0.02), 5-HT (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg p ≤ 0.03) and DA levels (all doses p ≤ 0.03), which correlated with decreased monoamine turnover. In contrast, IDAZ significantly elevated NA (p < 0.005) and DA (p < 0.004) but not 5-HT levels. IMI also significantly increased 5-HT (p < 0.009), with a tendency to increase NA (p = 0.09) but not DA. ORM-10921 exerts similar albeit broader effects on hippocampal monoamines than IDAZ, explaining earlier established efficacy associated with α2C-AR antagonism in animal models of depression and cognitive dysfunction. These and the current studies encourage application of ORM-10921 in depression in humans, as well as raise the intriguing possibility that selective α2C-AR antagonists may be beneficial in anxiety and stress-related disorders in companion animals. Both warrant further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian H Harvey
- Division of Pharmacology, Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa; South African MRC Unit on Risk and Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
| | - Madeleine M Uys
- Division of Pharmacology, Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Francois P Viljoen
- Division of Pharmacology, Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | | | - Quixi Sonntag
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Leith C R Meyer
- Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies and Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
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Szechtman H, Harvey BH, Woody EZ, Hoffman KL. The Psychopharmacology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Preclinical Roadmap. Pharmacol Rev 2020; 72:80-151. [PMID: 31826934 DOI: 10.1124/pr.119.017772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This review evaluates current knowledge about obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), with the goal of providing a roadmap for future directions in research on the psychopharmacology of the disorder. It first addresses issues in the description and diagnosis of OCD, including the structure, measurement, and appropriate description of the disorder and issues of differential diagnosis. Current pharmacotherapies for OCD are then reviewed, including monotherapy with serotonin reuptake inhibitors and augmentation with antipsychotic medication and with psychologic treatment. Neuromodulatory therapies for OCD are also described, including psychosurgery, deep brain stimulation, and noninvasive brain stimulation. Psychotherapies for OCD are then reviewed, focusing on behavior therapy, including exposure and response prevention and cognitive therapy, and the efficacy of these interventions is discussed, touching on issues such as the timing of sessions, the adjunctive role of pharmacotherapy, and the underlying mechanisms. Next, current research on the neurobiology of OCD is examined, including work probing the role of various neurotransmitters and other endogenous processes and etiology as clues to the neurobiological fault that may underlie OCD. A new perspective on preclinical research is advanced, using the Research Domain Criteria to propose an adaptationist viewpoint that regards OCD as the dysfunction of a normal motivational system. A systems-design approach introduces the security motivation system (SMS) theory of OCD as a framework for research. Finally, a new perspective on psychopharmacological research for OCD is advanced, exploring three approaches: boosting infrastructure facilities of the brain, facilitating psychotherapeutic relearning, and targeting specific pathways of the SMS network to fix deficient SMS shut-down processes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A significant proportion of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) do not achieve remission with current treatments, indicating the need for innovations in psychopharmacology for the disorder. OCD may be conceptualized as the dysfunction of a normal, special motivation system that evolved to manage the prospect of potential danger. This perspective, together with a wide-ranging review of the literature, suggests novel directions for psychopharmacological research, including boosting support systems of the brain, facilitating relearning that occurs in psychotherapy, and targeting specific pathways in the brain that provide deficient stopping processes in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Szechtman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (H.S.); SAMRC Unit on Risk Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cape Town, and Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa (B.H.H.); Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (E.Z.W.); and Centro de Investigación en Reproducción Animal, CINVESTAV-Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, Mexico (K.L.H.)
| | - Brian H Harvey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (H.S.); SAMRC Unit on Risk Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cape Town, and Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa (B.H.H.); Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (E.Z.W.); and Centro de Investigación en Reproducción Animal, CINVESTAV-Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, Mexico (K.L.H.)
| | - Erik Z Woody
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (H.S.); SAMRC Unit on Risk Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cape Town, and Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa (B.H.H.); Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (E.Z.W.); and Centro de Investigación en Reproducción Animal, CINVESTAV-Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, Mexico (K.L.H.)
| | - Kurt Leroy Hoffman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (H.S.); SAMRC Unit on Risk Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cape Town, and Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa (B.H.H.); Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (E.Z.W.); and Centro de Investigación en Reproducción Animal, CINVESTAV-Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala, Mexico (K.L.H.)
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Hjorth S, Waters S, Waters N, Tedroff J, Svensson P, Fagerberg A, Edling M, Svanberg B, Ljung E, Gunnergren J, McLean S, Grayson B, Idris N, Neill J, Sonesson C. (3S)‐3‐(2,3‐difluorophenyl)‐3‐methoxypyrrolidine (IRL752) —a Novel Cortical-Preferring Catecholamine Transmission- and Cognition-Promoting Agent. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2020; 374:404-419. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.120.000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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11
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Delport A, Harvey BH, Petzer A, Petzer JP. Methylene blue and its analogues as antidepressant compounds. Metab Brain Dis 2017; 32:1357-1382. [PMID: 28762173 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-0081-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Methylene Blue (MB) is considered to have diverse medical applications and is a well-described treatment for methemoglobinemias and ifosfamide-induced encephalopathy. In recent years the focus has shifted to MB as an antimalarial agent and as a potential treatment for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Of interest are reports that MB possesses antidepressant and anxiolytic activity in pre-clinical models and has shown promise in clinical trials for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. MB is a noteworthy inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), which is a well-established target for antidepressant action. MB is also recognized as a non-selective inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and guanylate cyclase. Dysfunction of the nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) cascade is strongly linked to the neurobiology of mood, anxiety and psychosis, while the inhibition of NOS and/or guanylate cyclase has been associated with an antidepressant response. This action of MB may contribute significantly to its psychotropic activity. However, these disorders are also characterised by mitochondrial dysfunction and redox imbalance. By acting as an alternative electron acceptor/donor MB restores mitochondrial function, improves neuronal energy production and inhibits the formation of superoxide, effects that also may contribute to its therapeutic activity. Using MB in depression co-morbid with neurodegenerative disorders, like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, also represents a particularly relevant strategy. By considering their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties, analogues of MB may provide therapeutic potential as novel multi-target strategies in the treatment of depression. In addition, low MAO-A active analogues may provide equal or improved response with a lower risk of adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anzelle Delport
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Brian H Harvey
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Division of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Anél Petzer
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Jacobus P Petzer
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
- Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
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Uys MM, Shahid M, Harvey BH. Therapeutic Potential of Selectively Targeting the α 2C-Adrenoceptor in Cognition, Depression, and Schizophrenia-New Developments and Future Perspective. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:144. [PMID: 28855875 PMCID: PMC5558054 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
α2A- and α2C-adrenoceptors (ARs) are the primary α2-AR subtypes involved in central nervous system (CNS) function. These receptors are implicated in the pathophysiology of psychiatric illness, particularly those associated with affective, psychotic, and cognitive symptoms. Indeed, non-selective α2-AR blockade is proposed to contribute toward antidepressant (e.g., mirtazapine) and atypical antipsychotic (e.g., clozapine) drug action. Both α2C- and α2A-AR share autoreceptor functions to exert negative feedback control on noradrenaline (NA) release, with α2C-AR heteroreceptors regulating non-noradrenergic transmission (e.g., serotonin, dopamine). While the α2A-AR is widely distributed throughout the CNS, α2C-AR expression is more restricted, suggesting the possibility of significant differences in how these two receptor subtypes modulate regional neurotransmission. However, the α2C-AR plays a more prominent role during states of low endogenous NA activity, while the α2A-AR is relatively more engaged during states of high noradrenergic tone. Although augmentation of conventional antidepressant and antipsychotic therapy with non-selective α2-AR antagonists may improve therapeutic outcome, animal studies report distinct yet often opposing roles for the α2A- and α2C-ARs on behavioral markers of mood and cognition, implying that non-selective α2-AR antagonism may compromise therapeutic utility both in terms of efficacy and side-effect liability. Recently, several highly selective α2C-AR antagonists have been identified that have allowed deeper investigation into the function and utility of the α2C-AR. ORM-13070 is a useful positron emission tomography ligand, ORM-10921 has demonstrated antipsychotic, antidepressant, and pro-cognitive actions in animals, while ORM-12741 is in clinical development for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. This review will emphasize the importance and relevance of the α2C-AR as a neuropsychiatric drug target in major depression, schizophrenia, and associated cognitive deficits. In addition, we will present new prospects and future directions of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine Monique Uys
- Division of Pharmacology, Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | | | - Brian Herbert Harvey
- Division of Pharmacology, Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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