Individual differences in response to novelty and the conditioned locomotor effects of nicotine

α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulation of accumbal dopamine release covaries with novelty seeking

Heightened novelty-seeking phenotypes are associated with a range of behavioural traits including susceptibility to drug use. These relationships are recapitulated in preclinical models, where rats that exhibit increased exploratory activity in novel environments (high responders-HR) acquire self-administration of psychostimulants more rapidly compared to rats that display low novelty exploration (low responders-LR). Dopamine release dynamics in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) covaries with response to novelty, and differences in dopaminergic signalling are thought to be a major underlying driver of the link between novelty seeking and drug use vulnerability. Accumbal dopamine release is controlled by local microcircuits including modulation through glutamatergic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) systems, but whether these mechanisms contribute to disparate dopamine signalling across novelty phenotypes is unclear. Here, we used ex vivo voltammetry in the NAc of rats to determine if α7 nAChRs contribute to differential dopamine dynamics associated with individual differences in novelty exploration. We found that blockade of α7 nAChRs attenuates tonic dopamine release evoked by low-frequency stimulations across phenotypes but that phasic release is decreased in LRs while HRs are unaffected. These stimulation frequency- and phenotype-dependent effects result in a decreased dynamic range of release exclusively in LRs. Furthermore, we found that differential α7 modulation of dopamine release in LRs is dependent on AMPA but not NMDA receptors. These results help to form an understanding of the local NAc microcircuitry and provide a potential mechanism for covariance of dopamine dynamics and sensitivity to the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse.

Evaluation of the rewarding properties of nicotine and caffeine by implementation of a five-choice conditioned place preference task in zebrafish

The rewarding properties of drugs in zebrafish can be studied using the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. Most devices that have been used for CPP consist of two-half tanks with or without a central chamber. Here we evaluated the rewarding effects of nicotine and caffeine using a tank with five arms distributed radially from a central chamber that we have denoted Fish Tank Radial Maze (FTRM). Zebrafish were trained to associate nicotine or caffeine with a coloured arm. In testing sessions to assess CPP induction, between two and five different arms were available to explore. We found that when offering the two arms, one of them associated to the drug mediating conditioning for 14 days, zebrafish showed nicotine-induced CPP but not caffeine-induced CPP. When zebrafish had the option to explore drug-paired arms together with new coloured arms as putative distractors, the nicotine-CPP strength was maintained for at least three days. The presence of novel environments induced caffeine-CPP, which was still positive after three days of testing sessions. Complementary behavioural data supported these findings. Nicotine-CPP was prevented by the histone deacetylase inhibitor phenylbutyrate administered during conditioning; however, there were no effects on caffeine-CPP. The specific acetylation of lysine 9 in histone 3 (H3-K9) was increased in nicotine-conditioned zebrafish brains. This study suggests that novel environmental cues facilitate drug-environment associations, and hence, the use of drugs of abuse.

Individual differences in the behavioral effects of nicotine: A review of the preclinical animal literature

Not everyone who tries tobacco or other nicotine-containing products becomes a long-term user. Certain traits or factors that are differentially present in these individuals must be able to help health care providers and researchers determine who is more likely to become chronic users of nicotine-containing products. Some of these factors, particularly sensation-seeking/novelty, impulsivity, and anxiety, lend themselves to the creation of animal models of reactivity to nicotine. These models of reactivity to nicotine can improve the translational aspects of preclinical animal research on nicotine-induced behaviors and treatments in order to help reduce negative outcomes in human populations. The goal of this review is to evaluate the current status of animal models of individual differences that serve to predict the later behavioral effects of nicotine. The limited utility and inconsistency of existing novelty models is considered, as well as the promise of impulsivity and anxiety models in preclinical animal populations. Finally, other models that could be employed to extend the benefit of the current research are examined.

Enriched environment attenuates nicotine self-administration and induces changes in ΔFosB expression in the rat prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens

Environment enrichment conditions have important consequences on subsequent vulnerability to drugs of abuse. The present work examined whether exposure to an enriched environment (EE) decreases oral self-consumption of nicotine. Wistar rats were housed either in a standard environment (SE, four rats per standard cage) or in an EE during 60 days after weaning. EE consisted of eight animals housed in larger cages containing a variety of objects such as boxes, toys, and burrowing material that were changed three times a week. After this period, animals were exposed to nicotine for 3 weeks, where animals chose freely between water and a nicotine solution (0.006% in water). Fluid consumption was evaluated on a daily basis. ΔFosB immunohistochemistry in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens was also performed. Rats of the EE group consumed less nicotine solution (0.25±0.04 mg/kg/day) than SE rats (0.54±0.05 mg/kg/day). EE increased the number of ΔFos-immunoreactive (ΔFos-ir) cells in the nucleus accumbens core and shell and in the prefrontal cortex, compared with animals in the standard condition. However, rats exposed to nicotine in the SE showed higher ΔFos-ir cells in the nucleus accumbens core and shell than nonexposed rats. Nicotine consumption did not modify ΔFos-ir cells in these brain areas in EE animals. These results support the idea of a possible protective effect of the EE on reward sensitivity and the development of an addictive behavior to nicotine.

The effect of previous exposure to nicotine on nicotine place preference

RATIONALE

Prior exposure to drugs of abuse may increase or decrease the reinforcing effects of the drug in later consumptions. Based on the initial locomotor activity (LA) response to an acute drug administration or to novelty in an open-field arena, animals can be classified as low or high LA responders (LR or HR). Few studies have used this classification with nicotine, and the results are controversial. Some authors suggested that nicotine can induce conditioned-place preference (CPP) following prior nicotine exposure, whereas others suggested that previous nicotine exposure extinguishes nicotine-CPP.

OBJECTIVE

To explore if the administration of nicotine in a novel environment without explicit behavioral consequences to classify animals in low and high nicotine responders (LNR and HNR) could affect the establishment of nicotine CPP in male Sprague-Dawley rats.

RESULTS

Prior exposure to a single dose of nicotine (0.4 mg/kg, subcutaneously) induced CPP in LNR rats after 14 days of conditioning (seven-trial) but not after two or eight conditioning days. In contrast, HNR rats did not show CPP under any condition. In addition, our results indicated that previous exposure to nicotine decreased its rewarding effects in eight conditioning days CPP (four-trial), which can be regularly established without prior exposure to nicotine.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that response to a single exposure to nicotine predicts the acquisition of nicotine preference in a 14-day conditioning protocol only for LNR rats. Thus, our findings demonstrated the relevance of using LNR and HNR classification when the individual susceptibility to nicotine preference is studied.

Individual differences and social influences on the neurobehavioral pharmacology of abused drugs

The interaction of drugs with biologic targets is a critical area of research, particularly for the development of medications to treat substance use disorders. In addition to understanding these drug-target interactions, however, there is a need to understand more fully the psychosocial influences that moderate these interactions. The first section of this review introduces some examples from human behavioral pharmacology that illustrate the clinical importance of this research. The second section covers preclinical evidence to characterize some of the key individual differences that alter drug sensitivity and abuse vulnerability, related primarily to differences in response to novelty and impulsivity. Evidence is presented to indicate that critical neuropharmacological mechanisms associated with these individual differences involve integrated neurocircuits underlying stress, reward, and behavioral inhibitory processes. The third section covers social influences on drug abuse vulnerability, including effects experienced during infancy, adolescence, and young adulthood, such as maternal separation, housing conditions, and social interactions (defeat, play, and social rank). Some of the same neurocircuits involved in individual differences also are altered by social influences, although the precise neurochemical and cellular mechanisms involved remain to be elucidated fully. Finally, some speculation is offered about the implications of this research for the prevention and treatment of substance abuse.

The contribution of the central nucleus of the amygdala to individual differences in amphetamine-induced hyperactivity

Rats classified as high responders (HR) based on their response to an inescapable novel environment self-administer more amphetamine and have greater amphetamine-induced sensitization than rats classified as low responders (LR). Recent research suggests that the central nucleus of the amygdala (ACe) contributes to the elevated self-administration in HR rats. Therefore, the current study examined the role of the ACe in the expression of both amphetamine-induced sensitization and conditioned hyperactivity in HR and LR rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were screened for their response to inescapable novelty and classified as HR or LR rats. Rats were implanted with bilateral cannulae into the ACe and received amphetamine (1.0 mg/kg, s.c.) or saline injections immediately prior to 1-h locomotor sessions. Following five training sessions, all rats received an infusion of muscimol (0.5 microg/0.5 microl) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) followed by a saline injection to measure conditioned hyperactivity. HR rats displayed conditioned hyperactivity, while LR rats did not, suggesting that HR and LR rats differ in the expression of conditioned hyperactivity. While ACe inactivation attenuated the expression of conditioned hyperactivity, it did not differentially affect HR and LR rats. Following additional training and a 10-day rest period, all rats were then tested for amphetamine-induced sensitization (1.0 mg/kg) following an infusion of muscimol or PBS. Inactivation of the ACe attenuated the expression of sensitization only in HR rats. These results suggest the ACe contributes to the greater amphetamine sensitization in HR rats.