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Ong HS, Sharma N, Phee LM, Mehta JS. Atypical microbial keratitis. Ocul Surf 2023; 28:424-439. [PMID: 34768003 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2021.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Atypical microbial keratitis refers to corneal infections caused by micro-organisms not commonly encountered in clinical practice. Unlike infections caused by common bacteria, cases of atypical microbial keratitis are often associated with worse clinical outcomes and visual prognosis. This is due to the challenges in the identification of causative organisms with standard diagnostic techniques, resulting in delays in the initiation of appropriate therapies. Furthermore, due to the comparatively lower incidence of atypical microbial keratitis, there is limited literature on effective management strategies for some of these difficult to manage corneal infections. This review highlights the current management and available evidence of atypical microbial keratitis, focusing on atypical mycobacteria keratitis, nocardia keratitis, achromobacter keratitis, and pythium keratitis. It will also describe the management of two uncommonly encountered conditions, infectious crystalline keratopathy and post-refractive infectious keratitis. This review can be used as a guide for clinicians managing patients with such challenging corneal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hon Shing Ong
- Corneal and External Diseases Department, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore; Tissue Engineering and Cell Therapy Department, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Duke-National University of Singapore (NUS) Graduate Medical School, Singapore.
| | - Namrata Sharma
- Department of Ophthalmology, Dr Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Lynette M Phee
- Department of Pathology, Sengkang General Hospital, SingHealth, Singapore
| | - Jodhbir S Mehta
- Corneal and External Diseases Department, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore; Tissue Engineering and Cell Therapy Department, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Duke-National University of Singapore (NUS) Graduate Medical School, Singapore; School of Material Science & Engineering and School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
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Vishwakarma P, Bagga B. Pythium insidiosum keratitis: Review of literature of 5 years' clinical experience at a tertiary eye care center. Semin Ophthalmol 2023; 38:190-200. [PMID: 36036721 DOI: 10.1080/08820538.2022.2116287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pythium insidiosum is an important cause of infectious keratitis from tropical and sub-tropical countries. Due to its closely mimicking clinical and microbiological features with fungus, it remained unidentified and managed as fungal keratitis for a long time. Previously all patients had poor outcomes with antifungal therapy and needed surgical treatment with higher rates of recurrences of infection leading to loss of an eye. Thus, a novel approach was required to treat it and, in this article, we would like to elaborate on the drastic change which these 5 years have brought in the management of this condition. METHODS In view of making a consolidated article comprising all the required information and also our clinical experience in the management of Pythium keratitis, we extensively reviewed several articles available on it over PubMed and Google scholars. Relevant literature describing details about Pythium, its clinical correlation, and recent advances from 52 articles including 12 articles from our group were finally included. RESULTS Our group identified and highlighted the unique clinical and microbiological features of Pythium insidiosum, performed several in-vitro, in-vivo studies along with clinical trials, and proposed the strategic way of its diagnosis and treatment. The use of antifungals was replaced with antibacterial medications and this resulted in better medical and surgical outcomes. CONCLUSION The diagnosis and management of Pythium insidiosum is constantly evolving with several recent works pointing out the possible changes in the practice patterns for the management of this challenging form of keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratima Vishwakarma
- The Ramoji Foundation Centre for Ocular Infections and the Cornea Institute, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Bhupesh Bagga
- The Ramoji Foundation Centre for Ocular Infections and the Cornea Institute, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
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Cao B, Gonugunta VT, Radhakrishnan N, Lalitha P, Gurnani B, Kaur K, Iyer G, Agarwal S, Srinivasan B, Keenan JD, Prajna NV. Outcomes of Pythium keratitis: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. CURRENT OPHTHALMOLOGY REPORTS 2022; 10:198-208. [PMID: 37250102 PMCID: PMC10211475 DOI: 10.1007/s40135-022-00302-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Background Pythium keratitis is a difficult-to-treat corneal infection. Methods A meta-analysis of individual patient data from observational studies of Pythium keratitis was performed. The outcomes of interest were therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty (TPK) and globe removal (evisceration, enucleation, or exenteration); the main exposures were linezolid and azithromycin use. Findings Of 46 eligible articles, individual patient data were available for 306 eyes (34 studies). Pythium keratitis was associated with high rates of TPK (80%, 95%CI 70-87%) and globe removal (25%, 95%CI 13-43). In multivariable models adjusting for age and country, fewer TPKs were performed in patients treated with azithromycin (RR=0.80, 95%CI 0.67-0.96; P=0.04) and linezolid (RR=0.82, 95%CI 0.67-0.99; P=0.02). Conclusions Studies of Pythium keratitis reported high rates of TPK and globe removal. Use of azithromycin and linezolid was associated with a lower rate of TPK. While promising, these results should be interpreted with caution given the biases inherent to observational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binh Cao
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Naveen Radhakrishnan
- Department of Cornea and Refractive Surgery, Aravind Eye Hospital Madurai, India
| | - Prajna Lalitha
- Department of Ocular Microbiology, Aravind Eye Hospital Madurai, India
| | - Bharat Gurnani
- Dr. Om Parkash Eye Institute, Amritsar, India
- Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute, Pondicherry, India
| | - Kirandeep Kaur
- Dr. Om Parkash Eye Institute, Amritsar, India
- Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute, Pondicherry, India
| | - Geetha Iyer
- C J Shah Cornea Services, Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, India
| | - Shweta Agarwal
- C J Shah Cornea Services, Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, India
| | - Bhaskar Srinivasan
- C J Shah Cornea Services, Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, India
| | - Jeremy D Keenan
- Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - N Venkatesh Prajna
- Department of Cornea and Refractive Surgery, Aravind Eye Hospital Madurai, India
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Gurnani B, Kaur K, Agarwal S, Lalgudi VG, Shekhawat NS, Venugopal A, Tripathy K, Srinivasan B, Iyer G, Gubert J. Pythium insidiosum Keratitis: Past, Present, and Future. Ophthalmol Ther 2022; 11:1629-1653. [PMID: 35788551 PMCID: PMC9255487 DOI: 10.1007/s40123-022-00542-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum (PI) is an oomycete, a protist belonging to the clade Stramenopila. PI causes vision-threatening keratitis closely mimicking fungal keratitis (FK), hence it is also labeled as "parafungus". PI keratitis was initially confined to Thailand, USA, China, and Australia, but with growing clinical awareness and improvement in diagnostic modalities, the last decade saw a massive upsurge in numbers with the majority of reports coming from India. In the early 1990s, pythiosis was classified as vascular, cutaneous, gastrointestinal, systemic, and ocular. Clinically, morphologically, and microbiologically, PI keratitis closely resembles severe FK and requires a high index of clinical suspicion for diagnosis. The clinical features such as reticular dot infiltrate, tentacular projections, peripheral thinning with guttering, and rapid limbal spread distinguish it from other microorganisms. Routine smearing with Gram and KOH stain reveals perpendicular septate/aseptate hyphae, which closely mimic fungi and make the diagnosis cumbersome. The definitive diagnosis is the presence of dull grey/brown refractile colonies along with zoospore formation upon culture by leaf induction method. However, culture is time-consuming, and currently polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is the gold standard. The value of other diagnostic modalities such as confocal microscopy and immunohistopathological assays is limited due to cost, non-availability, and limited diagnostic accuracy. PI keratitis is a relatively rare disease without established treatment protocols. Because of its resemblance to fungus, it was earlier treated with antifungals but with an improved understanding of its cell wall structure and absence of ergosterol, this is no longer recommended. Currently, antibacterials have shown promising results. Therapeutic keratoplasty with good margin (1 mm) is mandated for non-resolving cases and corneal perforation. In this review, we have deliberated on the evolution of PI keratitis, covered all the recently available literature, described our current understanding of the diagnosis and treatment, and the potential future diagnostic and management options for PI keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharat Gurnani
- Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, 605007, India.
| | - Kirandeep Kaur
- Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, 605007 India
| | - Shweta Agarwal
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, 18 College Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600006 India
| | | | - Nakul S. Shekhawat
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Anitha Venugopal
- Aravind Eye Hospital and Postgraduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu India
| | | | - Bhaskar Srinivasan
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, 18 College Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600006 India
| | - Geetha Iyer
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, 18 College Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600006 India
| | - Joseph Gubert
- Department of Microbiology, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, 605007 India
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Gurnani B, Kaur K, Venugopal A, Srinivasan B, Bagga B, Iyer G, Christy J, Prajna L, Vanathi M, Garg P, Narayana S, Agarwal S, Sahu S. Pythium insidiosum keratitis - A review. Indian J Ophthalmol 2022; 70:1107-1120. [PMID: 35325996 PMCID: PMC9240499 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1534_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pythium insidiosum is an oomycete and is also called “parafungus” as it closely mimics fungal keratitis. The last decade saw an unprecedented surge in Pythium keratitis cases, especially from Asia and India, probably due to growing research on the microorganism and improved diagnostic and treatment modalities. The clinical features such as subepithelial infiltrate, cotton wool-like fluffy stromal infiltrate, satellite lesions, corneal perforation, endoexudates, and anterior chamber hypopyon closely resemble fungus. The classical clinical features of Pythium that distinguish it from other microorganisms are reticular dots, tentacular projections, peripheral furrowing, and early limbal spread, which require a high index of clinical suspicion. Pythium also exhibits morphological and microbiological resemblance to fungus on routine smearing, revealing perpendicular or obtuse septate or aseptate branching hyphae. Culture on blood agar or any other nutritional agar is the gold standard for diagnosis. It grows as cream-colored white colonies with zoospores formation, further confirmed using the leaf incarnation method. Due to limited laboratory diagnostic modalities and delayed growth on culture, there was a recent shift toward various molecular diagnostic modalities such as polymerase chain reaction, confocal microscopy, ELISA, and immunodiffusion. As corneal scraping (10% KOH, Gram) reveals fungal hyphae, antifungals are started before the culture results are available. Recent in vitro molecular studies have suggested antibacterials as the first-line drugs in the form of 0.2% linezolid and 1% azithromycin. Early therapeutic keratoplasty is warranted in nonresolving cases. This review aims to describe the epidemiology, clinical features, laboratory and molecular diagnosis, and treatment of Pythium insidiosum keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharat Gurnani
- Cataract, Cornea, External Disease, Trauma and Refractive Services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, India
| | - Kirandeep Kaur
- Pediatric and Squint Services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, India
| | - Anitha Venugopal
- Cornea, Ocular surface, Trauma and Refractive services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Postgraduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Bhaskar Srinivasan
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Bhupesh Bagga
- Cornea Clinic, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Kallam Anji Reddy Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Geetha Iyer
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Josephine Christy
- Cataract, Cornea and Refractive Services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, India
| | - Lalitha Prajna
- Microbiology Services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Murugesan Vanathi
- Cornea and Ocular Surface, Cataract and Refractive Services, Dr R P Centre, AIIMS, New Delhi, India
| | - Prashant Garg
- Director and Kallam Anji Reddy Chair of Ophthalmology Paul Dubord Chair of Cornea, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Kallam Anji Reddy Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Shivanand Narayana
- Cataract, Cornea, External Diseases, Trauma and Refractive Services, Aravind Eye Hospital and Post Graduate Institute of Ophthalmology, Pondicherry, India
| | - Shweta Agarwal
- Dr G Sitalakshmi Memorial Clinic for Ocular Surface Disorders, CJ Shah Cornea Services, Medical Research Foundation, Sankara Nethralaya, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Srikant Sahu
- Cornea and Anterior Segment, Contact Lens, Cataract, Laser Refractive Surgery Services, Mithu Tulsi Chanrai Campus, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
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Bakken IM, Jackson CJ, Utheim TP, Villani E, Hamrah P, Kheirkhah A, Nielsen E, Hau S, Lagali NS. The use of in vivo confocal microscopy in fungal keratitis - Progress and challenges. Ocul Surf 2022; 24:103-118. [PMID: 35278721 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Fungal keratitis (FK) is a serious and sight-threatening corneal infection with global reach. The need for prompt diagnosis is paramount, as a delay in initiation of treatment could lead to irreversible vision loss. Current "gold standard" diagnostic methods, namely corneal smear and culture, have limitations due to diagnostic insensitivity and their time-consuming nature. PCR is a newer, complementary method used in the diagnosis of fungal keratitis, whose results are also sample-dependent. In vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) is a promising complementary diagnostic method of increasing importance as it allows non-invasive real-time direct visualization of potential fungal pathogens and manifesting infection directly in the patient's cornea. In numerous articles and case reports, FK diagnosis by IVCM has been evaluated, and different features, approaches, sensitivity/specificity, and limitations have been noted. Here, we provide an up-to-date, comprehensive review of the current literature and present the authors' combined recommendations for fungal identification in IVCM images, while also looking to the future of FK assessment by IVCM using artificial intelligence methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingvild M Bakken
- Department of Ophthalmology, Sørlandet Hospital Arendal, Arendal, Norway
| | - Catherine J Jackson
- Ifocus Eye Clinic, Haugesund, Norway; Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tor P Utheim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Sørlandet Hospital Arendal, Arendal, Norway; Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Department of Health and Nursing Science, The Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway
| | - Edoardo Villani
- Department of Clinical Science and Community Health, University of Milan, Italy; Eye Clinic San Giuseppe Hospital, IRCCS Multimedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Pedram Hamrah
- Cornea Service, New England Eye Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ahmad Kheirkhah
- Department of Ophthalmology, Long School of Medicine, UT Health San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Esben Nielsen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Scott Hau
- Department of External Disease, NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Ophthalmology, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil S Lagali
- Department of Ophthalmology, Sørlandet Hospital Arendal, Arendal, Norway; Division of Ophthalmology, Institute for Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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Bagga B, Vishwakarma P, Sharma S, Jospeh J, Mitra S, Mohamed A. Sensitivity and specificity of potassium hydroxide and calcofluor white stain to differentiate between fungal and Pythium filaments in corneal scrapings from patients of Pythium keratitis. Indian J Ophthalmol 2022; 70:542-545. [PMID: 35086234 PMCID: PMC9023980 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1880_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To assess the sensitivity of potassium hydroxide and calcofluor white (KOH+CFW) mount in the diagnosis of Pythium keratitis and concordance among microbiologists. Methods: Three microbiologists evaluated the microscopic images of KOH + CFW mounts of confirmed cases of Pythium and fungal keratitis seen between January 2019 and February 2021. The filaments were compared using specific differentiating features. The sensitivity and specificity of KOH + CFW in diagnosing Pythium infection were evaluated along with concordance among the microbiologists. Results: Sixty consecutive cases with confirmed growth of fungus or Pythium insidiosum (n = 29) were evaluated. The sensitivity of KOH + CFW in the correct identification of Pythium filaments ranged from 79.3% to 96.5% among three microbiologists. There was good interobserver (k = 0.76–0.90) and intraobserver (k = 0.70–0.97) agreements among three microbiologists. The differentiating findings (P < 0.0001) suggestive of Pythium filaments were the absence of septae in 23 (79.3%) and collapsed walls in 22 (75.9%) cases. Conclusion: KOH + CFW has good sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of Pythium keratitis with good interobserver and intraobserver concordance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Savitri Sharma
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Joveeta Jospeh
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Sanchita Mitra
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Ashik Mohamed
- Ophthalmic Biophysics, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
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History and Perspective of Immunotherapy for Pythiosis. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9101080. [PMID: 34696188 PMCID: PMC8539095 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9101080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungus-like microorganism Pythium insidiosum causes pythiosis, a life-threatening infectious disease increasingly reported worldwide. Antimicrobial drugs are ineffective. Radical surgery is an essential treatment. Pythiosis can resume post-surgically. Immunotherapy using P. insidiosum antigens (PIA) has emerged as an alternative treatment. This review aims at providing up-to-date information of the immunotherapeutic PIA, with the focus on its history, preparation, clinical application, outcome, mechanism, and recent advances, in order to promote the proper use and future development of this treatment modality. P. insidiosum crude extract is the primary source of immunotherapeutic antigens. Based on 967 documented human and animal (mainly horses) pythiosis cases, PIA immunotherapy reduced disease morbidity and mortality. Concerning clinical outcomes, 19.4% of PIA-immunized human patients succumbed to vascular pythiosis instead of 41.0% in unimmunized cases. PIA immunotherapy may not provide an advantage in a local P. insidiosum infection of the eye. Both PIA-immunized and unimmunized horses with pythiosis showed a similar survival rate of ~70%; however, demands for surgical intervention were much lesser in the immunized cases (22.8% vs. 75.2%). The proposed PIA action involves switching the non-protective T-helper-2 to protective T-helper-1 mediated immunity. By exploring the available P. insidiosum genome data, synthetic peptides, recombinant proteins, and nucleic acids are potential sources of the immunotherapeutic antigens worth investigating. The PIA therapeutic property needs improvement for a better prognosis of pythiosis patients.
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Ledbetter EC. Applications of in vivo confocal microscopy in the management of infectious keratitis in veterinary ophthalmology. Vet Ophthalmol 2021; 25 Suppl 1:5-16. [PMID: 34480385 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) is a relatively new ocular imaging technique that permits morphological and quantitative assessment of the living cornea on the cellular level. The applications for IVCM in clinical ophthalmology are numerous and diverse. There are several advantages inherent to IVCM over standard diagnostic techniques currently used to confirm a diagnosis of infectious keratitis in veterinary ophthalmology. With IVCM, images can be viewed in real-time providing immediate diagnostic information. Traumatic corneal sampling techniques are avoided, and the procedure can be repeated as frequently as is clinically indicated without risk of corneal tissue damage. Both superficial and deep corneal lesions can be evaluated by IVCM in an atraumatic fashion. Microorganism viability is not required for their detection and specialized diagnostic laboratory assay procedures are not necessary. Many larger infectious agents can be directly identified within corneal lesions by IVCM, including fungi and parasites such as Acanthamoeba spp. In other situations, such as bacterial infectious crystalline keratopathy, the biological systems associated with the microorganism can be detected within the cornea. The current resolution of IVCM is inadequate to directly visualize some corneal infectious agents, such as herpesviruses, but host responses and virus-infected epithelial cells can be identified. This review summarizes the current knowledge and applications of IVCM in the management of infectious keratitis in veterinary ophthalmology, including its use in animals with bacterial, fungal, parasitic, and viral keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C Ledbetter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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Kharel A, Islam MT, Rookes J, Cahill D. How to Unravel the Key Functions of Cryptic Oomycete Elicitin Proteins and Their Role in Plant Disease. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10061201. [PMID: 34204633 PMCID: PMC8231210 DOI: 10.3390/plants10061201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pathogens and plants are in a constant battle with one another, the result of which is either the restriction of pathogen growth via constitutive or induced plant defense responses or the pathogen colonization of plant cells and tissues that cause disease. Elicitins are a group of highly conserved proteins produced by certain oomycete species, and their sterol binding ability is recognized as an important feature in sterol–auxotrophic oomycetes. Elicitins also orchestrate other aspects of the interactions of oomycetes with their plant hosts. The function of elicitins as avirulence or virulence factors is controversial and is dependent on the host species, and despite several decades of research, the function of these proteins remains elusive. We summarize here our current understanding of elicitins as either defense-promoting or defense-suppressing agents and propose that more recent approaches such as the use of ‘omics’ and gene editing can be used to unravel the role of elicitins in host–pathogen interactions. A better understanding of the role of elicitins is required and deciphering their role in host–pathogen interactions will expand the strategies that can be adopted to improve disease resistance and reduce crop losses.
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Predisposing Factors, Clinical Presentations, and Outcomes of Contact Lens-Related Pythium Keratitis. Cornea 2021; 40:1413-1419. [PMID: 33470674 DOI: 10.1097/ico.0000000000002651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe predisposing factors, clinical presentations, and treatment outcomes of contact lens (CL)-related Pythium keratitis. METHODS This was an 11-year retrospective study of CL-related Pythium keratitis conducted from 2009 to 2019. Six eyes of 6 patients were identified. Demographics, predisposing factors, CL history, clinical presentation, diagnostic tests, treatments, and outcomes were reviewed. RESULTS Mean age of the patients was 34 years (SD 16.3 years) with equal proportion between male and female patients. Five of 6 patients (83.3%) used soft CL, whereas 1 patient used rigid gas permeable lens. All patients had a history of water contamination (tap water and water from river and sea). Mean duration from the onset was 7.8 days (range 4-14 days). Mean size of the corneal lesion was 3.33 mm (SD 1.31 mm) in width. The typical feature of tentacle-like lesions radiating in a reticular pattern was observed in all patients. Feathery edge (1 eye), satellite lesions (2 eyes), and radial keratoneuritis (2 eyes) were also found. Every patient received therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty because of failed medical treatments. One patient subsequently underwent enucleation. Globe salvage was achieved in 5 patients (83.33%). CONCLUSIONS Awareness of the history of water contamination, recognition of specific clinical features of Pythium keratitis, and performing surgical treatment are key for achieving globe salvage in patients with CL-related Pythium keratitis.
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Kalra P, Ahirwar LK, Mittal R, Ranjith K, Das S, Manjulatha K, Bagga B, Mohamed A, Joseph J, Sharma S. Clinical and Histopathological Evaluation of a Rabbit Model for Pythium insidiosum Keratitis. Curr Eye Res 2020; 45:542-549. [DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2019.1676911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paavan Kalra
- Cornea and Anterior Segment Services, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Lalit Kishore Ahirwar
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Ruchi Mittal
- Kanupriya Dalmia Ophthalmic Pathology Laboratory, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Konduri Ranjith
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Shilpa Das
- Cornea Service, Nethradhama Superspeciality Eye Hospital, Bangalore, India
| | - Kodiganti Manjulatha
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Bhupesh Bagga
- Cornea and Anterior Segment Services, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Ashik Mohamed
- Ophthalmic Biophysics, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Joveeta Joseph
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Savitri Sharma
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
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Chitasombat MN, Jongkhajornpong P, Lekhanont K, Krajaejun T. Recent update in diagnosis and treatment of human pythiosis. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8555. [PMID: 32117626 PMCID: PMC7036273 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pythiosis is an infectious condition with high morbidity and mortality. The causative agent is the oomycete microorganism Pythium insidiosum. The pathogen inhabits ubiquitously in a wet environment, and direct exposure to the pathogen initiates the infection. Most patients with pythiosis require surgical removal of the affected organ, and many patients die from the disease. Awareness of pythiosis among healthcare personnel is increasing. In this review, we summarized and updated information on the diagnosis and treatment of human pythiosis. Vascular and ocular pythiosis are common clinical manifestations. Recognition of the typical clinical features of pythiosis is essential for early diagnosis. The definitive diagnosis of the disease requires laboratory testing, such as microbiological, serological, molecular, and proteomic assays. In vascular pythiosis, surgical intervention to achieve the organism-free margin of the affected tissue, in combination with the use of antifungal drugs and P. insidiosum immunotherapy, remains the recommended treatment. Ocular pythiosis is a serious condition and earliest therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty with wide surgical margin is the mainstay treatment. Thorough clinical assessment is essential in all patients to evaluate the treatment response and detect an early sign of the disease recurrence. In conclusion, early diagnosis and proper management are the keys to an optimal outcome of the patients with pythiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nina Chitasombat
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Passara Jongkhajornpong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kaevalin Lekhanont
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Theerapong Krajaejun
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Human Pythiosis: Emergence of Fungal-Like Organism. Mycopathologia 2019; 185:801-812. [PMID: 31845178 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-019-00412-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Pythiosis is an emerging infectious disease caused by the aquatic oomycete Pythium insidiosum, a fungal-like organism. It is believed that P. insidiosum's zoospores, its infected form, play major role in pathogenesis. Vascular and ocular infections are the most common clinical manifestation in humans. It is difficult to establish the diagnosis given its relatively rarity and difficulty to distinguish P. insidiosum from other molds. Delay in diagnosis and treatment has been associated with poor outcomes. High index of suspicion is the key, particularly in thalassemia patients with arterial insufficiency and patients with fungal keratitis/endophthalmitis without improvement on antifungal therapy. Tissue culture and zoospore induction remain gold standard for diagnosis; however, DNA-based method should be performed simultaneously. The combination of radical surgery, antifungal agents, and immunotherapy has been recommended. It was previously believed that surgery with negative surgical margins was the essential to survive in vascular pythiosis; however, it was recently found that patients could have residual disease despite documented negative surgical margins as infected clot may be dislodged to proximal arterial sites prior to surgery. Serum β-D-glucan (BG) has been used to monitor disease response after treatment initiation in vascular pythiosis. A significant decrease in BG levels within 2 weeks after surgery is indicative of the absence of residual infection. Unfortunately, monitoring tools for ocular pythiosis are not yet available. Itraconazole plus terbinafine have generally been used in P. insidiosum-infected patients; however, antibacterial agents, including azithromycin and linezolid, have also been used with favorable outcomes in ocular disease. Recently, azithromycin or clarithromycin plus doxycyclin were used in two relapsed vascular pythiosis patients with good outcomes.
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