Persistence and Adherence to Psychostimulants, and Psychological Well-Being Up to 3 Years After Specialized Treatment of Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Naturalistic Follow-Up Study

Factors Influencing the Medication Adherence in Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Impact on Healthcare Utilization

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the factors influencing medication adherence among adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and impact of central nervous system stimulants (CNS) adherence on healthcare utilization (HCU). Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using Medical Expenditure Panel Survey 2013 to 2019, with participants (≥18 years of age) with ADHD and had at least one CNS prescription. Multivariate logistic and linear regression were utilized to evaluate the medication adherence and its impact on HCU, respectively.

RESULT

Total 798 (10,718,005 weighted) ADHD patients, were mostly White (81%), aged between 18 and 25 (35%), and non-adherent to CNS (65%). The use of extended-release medications (OR = 1.51 [1.03, 2.23]) and new users (OR = 3.46 [2.12, 5.63], p ≤ .05) were positively associated with medication adherence. The adherent group utilized more outpatient visits (0.04 vs. 0.46) and prescription refills (18.38 vs. 31.25) compared to non-adherent.

CONCLUSION

Our findings can be applied to improve the medication adherence, patient education, and optimize intervention for adults with ADHD.

Multimodal treatment efficacy differs in dependence of core symptom profiles in adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: An analysis of the randomized controlled COMPAS trial

There is broad consensus that to improve the treatment of adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), the various therapy options need to be tailored more precisely to the individual patient's needs and specific symptoms. This post-hoc analysis evaluates the multimodal effects of first-line medication (methylphenidate [MPH] vs placebo [PLB]) and psychotherapeutic (group psychotherapy [GPT] vs clinical management [CM]) treatments on the ADHD core symptoms inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. For the two-by-two factorial, observer-blinded, multicenter, randomized controlled Comparison of Methylphenidate and Psychotherapy in Adult ADHD Study (COMPAS; ISRCTN54096201), 419 outpatients with ADHD were considered for analysis. ADHD symptoms were assessed by blind observer-rated and patient-rated Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales before treatment (T1), 13 weeks (T2) and 26 weeks (T3) after T1, at treatment completion after 52 weeks (T4), and at follow-up (130 weeks, T5). MPH was superior to PLB in improving symptoms of inattention at almost all endpoints (observer-rated T2, T3, T4, T5; patient-rated T2, T3, T4), while a significant decrease in hyperactivity and impulsivity was at first found after 6 months of treatment. CM compared to GPT decreased inattention and impulsivity in the early treatment phase only (observer-rated T2, patient-rated T2, T3). In conclusion, while MPH seems to have a direct and sustained effect on inattention, premature medication discontinuation should particularly be avoided in patients with hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. Also, especially in high inattention and/or impulsivity presentations, initial individual patient management might be beneficial. Consequently, considering individual core symptom profiles may enhance the efficacy of treatments in adult ADHD.

The Association of Oral Stimulant Medication Adherence with Work Productivity among Adults with ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Examine associations between oral psychostimulant pharmacotherapy adherence, work productivity, and related indirect costs among US adults with ADHD.

METHODS

Medication adherence (Medication Adherence Reasons Scale [MAR-Scale]), work productivity and activity impairment (Work Productivity and Activity Impairment-General Health questionnaire), and ADHD symptom level (Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale version 1.1 Symptom Checklist) were assessed in this noninterventional online survey of adults who self-reported having an ADHD diagnosis and were currently receiving oral psychostimulant treatment for ≥3 months.

RESULTS

Of 602 respondents, 395 had low/medium adherence (LMA: MAR-Scale total score ≥1) and 207 had high adherence (HA: MAR-Scale total score 0). After adjusting for covariates, the LMA group had significantly greater levels of absenteeism, absenteeism-related indirect costs, and total indirect costs (all p < .01) than the HA group.

CONCLUSION

In adults with ADHD using oral psychostimulants, lower medication adherence was associated with greater absenteeism and indirect costs.

Pharmacotherapy for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Retention in Outpatient Substance Use Disorder Treatment: A Retrospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the relationship between short- and longer-term retention in outpatient substance use disorder (SUD) treatment and pharmacotherapy for comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study conducted in a single addiction psychiatry clinic, electronic health record data from July 14, 2014, through January 15, 2020, were queried for clinical ADHD diagnosis (DSM-5 criteria), ADHD pharmacotherapy, treatment duration, demographic variables, comorbid psychiatric and SUD diagnoses, and buprenorphine therapy. Individuals with ADHD (n = 203) were grouped by ADHD pharmacotherapy status (171 receiving medication compared to 32 receiving none). Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were performed and assessed for significance.

RESULTS

ADHD was clinically diagnosed in 9.4% of outpatients and was associated with younger age, comorbid cocaine use, and private insurance (P < .001). Individuals receiving no ADHD pharmacotherapy were younger than those receiving medication (P = .003). Compared to no ADHD medication, ADHD pharmacotherapy was associated with greater long-term retention, with apparent group half-lives of 9 months and 36 months, respectively (P < .001). Individuals receiving no ADHD medication had a 4.9-fold increased likelihood of attrition within 90 days (P = .041). Regression analysis showed only ADHD pharmacotherapy to be significantly associated with treatment retention (hazard ratio = 0.59; 95% CI, 0.40-0.86; P = .008).

CONCLUSIONS

ADHD pharmacotherapy is robustly associated with improved short- and longer-term retention in outpatient SUD treatment. The retrospective, nonrandomized naturalistic study design limits causal inference. Further studies addressing unmeasured covariates and associated risks of treatment in adults with ADHD and SUD are necessary.

Five-year outcomes of ADHD diagnosed in adulthood

There is a dearth of long-term follow-up studies of adults diagnosed with ADHD. Here, the aim was to evaluate long-term outcomes in a group of ADHD patients diagnosed in adulthood and receiving routine psychiatric health care. Adults diagnosed with any type of ADHD (n = 52) and healthy controls (n = 73) were assessed at baseline and at a 5-year follow-up, using Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), Clinical Global Impression (CGI), Brown ADD Scale (BADDS) and Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). A multivariate regression method was used to identify factors predicting 5-year outcomes, including baseline ratings, medication intensity, comorbidity, intelligence quotient (IQ), age, and sex. After 5 years, ADHD patients reported fewer and/or less severe symptoms compared to baseline, but remained at clinically significant symptom levels and with functional deficits. Baseline self-reports of ADHD symptoms predicted their own 5-year outcome and low baseline functioning level predicted improved global functioning at follow-up. Factors previously reported to predict short-term outcomes (i.e., medication, comorbidity, IQ, age, and sex) did not anticipate long-term outcomes in present study.

Cognitive behavioural therapy in groups for medicated adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: protocol for a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is an evidence-based treatment for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, it is still inconsistent whether a combination of CBT would have additive effects in medicated ADHD in adulthood. And if CBT would have additional effects, what kind and which dimension would CBT play a part? This study estimates the efficacy of CBT in stable medicated adult ADHD, using long-term outcomes and multidimensional evaluations.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

It is a two-armed, randomised controlled trial on the superiority of the efficacy of 12 weeks of CBT on medicated adult ADHD. We compare the short-term and long-term outcomes between CBT combined with medication (CBT+M) group and the medication-only (M) group, including ADHD core symptoms, emotional symptoms, executive function, self-esteem, life quality and brain function using functional near-infrared spectroscopy data. Participants are outpatients of the Peking University Sixth Hospital and those recruited online, diagnosed as adult ADHD and with stable medication treatment. We estimate ADHD core symptoms and combined symptoms at baseline (T1) and week 12 (T2), week 24 (T3), week 36 (T4) and week 48 (T5).

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This trial has been approved by the Ethics and Clinical Research Committees of Peking University Sixth Hospital and will be performed under the Declaration of Helsinki with the Medical Research Involving Human Subjects Act (WMO). The results will be disseminated in a peer-reviewed journal and a conference presentation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ChiCTR (ChiCTR1900021705).

A Review of Factors Influencing the Three Phases of Medication Adherence in People with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Objectives: Factors affecting adherence to medications in people with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are not well understood in the context of their influence on the different phases of adherence, that is, initiation, implementation, and discontinuation. This review aimed to identify the factors affecting the three phases of medication adherence in people with ADHD. Methods: Six electronic databases, including Medline, PubMed, IPA, CINAHL, Embase, and PsycINFO, were systematically searched from inception through October 2018 with the limitations of English language and human studies. The search strategy was based on three concepts (adherence, ADHD, and factors) and their relevant terminologies. Results: Considerable variability was observed with regards to the criteria used to define adherence in identified studies (n = 48). Most studies focused on the implementation phase of adherence (n = 27), while only a handful focused on the initiation (n = 6) and discontinuation (n = 5) phase of adherence. The remaining studies (n = 10) examined multiple phases of adherence. Conflicting information received about medication, medication frequency, and fears of medication's effect on growth were the unique factors impacting initiation, implementation, and discontinuation, respectively. Moreover, factors within each phase of adherence also differed with different populations such as parents, children, adolescents, and adults. Fear of addiction, medication effectiveness, psychiatric comorbidity, and medication side effects were the most common factors identified in all three phases of adherence. Conclusions: This review found some unique factors in each phase of adherence while some overlap was also noted. Future interventions to improve adherence should be phase- and group specific rather than consider adherence as a single variable.

Long-Term Tolerability and Safety of Pharmacological Treatment of Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A 6-Year Prospective Naturalistic Study

BACKGROUND

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder typically treated with stimulants and atomoxetine. Data on long-term tolerability and safety of such pharmacological treatment in subjects diagnosed in adulthood are limited.

METHODS

A cohort of adults diagnosed with ADHD according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria was followed-up on an average of 6 years after first evaluation. Of 168 adults, 112 (67%) who initiated medication were available for follow-up. Data were obtained from patient record data, self-report forms, and a telephone interview.

RESULTS

Of the 112 participants assessed, 57 (51%) were still on treatment with methylphenidate (MPH) at follow-up and 55 (49%) had discontinued. The 3 leading reasons for discontinuing treatment with MPH were lack of effect (29%), elevated mood or hypomania (11%), and losing contact with the prescribing physician (9%). The most common adverse effects in subjects still on treatment with MPH were decreased appetite (28%), dry mouth (24%), anxiousness/restlessness and increased pulse frequency (19% each), decreased sexual desire (17%), and perspiration (15%). Subjects still on treatment reported increased quality of life, a higher level of functioning, and a greater understanding of their way of functioning from those being close compared with nonmedicated subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

The high attrition rate underscores the need for further research to identify possible modes to increase retention to treatment. Those diagnosed with ADHD and on long-term treatment with stimulants experience mild and tolerable adverse effects.